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Study Guide for Plutarch's Life of Titus Quintius Flamininus

Text taken from Thomas North and/or John Dryden
Study Guide by Anne White

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Titus Quintius Flamininus (227 B.C.-174 B.C.)

"It is a very rare thing amongst men, to find a man very valiant, and wise withal: but yet of all sorts of valiant men, it is harder to find a just man." Plutarch, Life of Titus Flamininus

Introduction

Titus Flamininus was a general and statesman in the Roman Republic, during its time of rapid growth around 200 B.C. He does not seem to have lived to old age; but he did have a head start, becoming one of the youngest-ever consuls. Much of his story involves the various city-states of Greece, which were often at war against Macedon and the Seleucid Empire, not to mention each other. Titus saw the truth of the times perhaps more clearly than the Greeks he attempted to befriend and "liberate": Rome was becoming an unconquerable power, and the rest of the world had no choice but to make the best of it.

Quintius or Quinctius? Flaminius or Flamininus?

Quinctius is the more ancient and more "correct" way to write the family name. However, I have used Quintius in other references, and my copy of Dryden's Plutarch and the version of North's which I use spells it Quintius.

Flamininus (pronounced with a long I sound for the second I) is sometimes spelled Flaminius by early writers, including Thomas North. I have used "Flamininus" here, but the spelling issue is worth noting as it does come up both ways. Plutarch refers to him, sometimes in the same paragraph, as both "Titus" and "Flamininus."

The Government of the Roman Republic

Commonwealth is a general term referring to a country or city/state (like Rome), and its colonies or associated territories or countries. The Roman Empire did not formally exist until 27 B.C. However, the Roman Republic did have an empire because of the foreign territory it was acquiring. For clarity, we will call it the small-e empire.

Social Classes

There were two different types of class divisions in ancient Rome. The first was family-based, between the patricians (the nobility) and the plebeians (common people). The second type were property- or wealth-based classes such as the senatores, the wealthiest citizens.

Were the senatores the same as the senators?

Often, but the two were not identical. Over the centuries, and even within the Republic era, both the size of the Senate and the personal requirements for membership (age, wealth) changed. Some plebeians became senators along with the patricians. Those elected to magistracies (see below) were also included in the Senate.

What was an aedile, a quaestor, a consul, a censor?

The elected positions, or magistracies, in Rome were (starting at the bottom): quaestor, aedile, praetor, and consul. (The office of tribune was a separate position, explained below.) There were various numbers of each of these: for example, two consuls were elected each year. Ex-consuls could become censors; and a consul could become dictator if the need (usually a great emergency) arose.

Who were the tribunes?

The duty of a non-military tribune (sometimes called a tribune of the plebeians, or a "tribune of the people") was to protect the liberties of the common people from any individual or group (such as the nobles) who might take advantage of them or suppress their rights. This position was not part of the junior-senior ranking of magistrates such as quaestor and consul; it was an office voted on by the common people (plebeians).

Who was Antiochus?

Antiochus "the Great" was Antiochus III, a king of Greek heritage who ruled the Seleucid Empire (part of Alexander the Great's former empire, covering much of what we know as the Middle East). Antiochus called himself "the champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination"; but he was defeated at the Battle of Magnesia in 190/189 B.C., and died three years later.

Geography Notes, Mostly about Greece

The region of Arcadia is in the Peloponnese (sometimes Peloponnesus)--the southern part of Greece that looks almost like a large island. Philopoemen, whose story intertwines with that of Titus Flamininus, was an Arcadian.

Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was another city-state in the Peloponnese, known for its military culture, and enemy to the Achaeans during a war from 229-222 B.C. (the Spartan troops were led by Cleomenes III, and the Achaean forces by Aratus of Sicyon). That war was ended by the Achaean victory at the Battle of Sellasia.

During the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage, Sparta was an ally of Rome. After the defeat of its later ruler Nabis, Sparta was forced to join the Achaean League; but since it was not involved in the final struggle against Rome, it was made a "free city" (though under Roman rule). It became a tourist attraction for Romans who wanted to experience the "exotic" Spartan lifestyle.

History Note about Spartan Kings (Who was Nabis?)

Sparta, for many years, had a "dual monarchy": two kings at a time, from two different families, the Agiads and the Eurypontids. In 215 B.C., a Eurypontid king named Lycurgus began to rule on his own, and was succeeded in 210 B.C. by his son Pelops.

Pelops was too young to rule alone, so Machanidas was installed as his regent, or substitute ruler; however, he died at the Battle of Machineia in 207. Nabis (introduced in Lesson Eight), the next regent for Pelops, took over as king after Pelops' death in 206, and was lucky enough to remain on the throne until 192. After Nabis there was only one more Spartan king, named Laconicus.

In 192 the government of Sparta was taken over by the Achaean League. Achaea was a territory on the northern coast of the Peloponnese. The Achaean League was an alliance of Greek city-states in that region.

Who were the Aetolians?

Aetolia is a mountainous region on the northern coast of the Gulf of Corinth. References to the Aetolians, however, often mean the Aetolian League, a longtime alliance of Greek states, which had previously fought off the Gauls and other such threats. During the First Macedonian War (215-205 B.C.), the League supported Rome. They later formed an alliance with Antiochus III; however, Antiochus himself was eventually defeated by Rome, and the Aetolian League became a name-only organization.

Macedon or Macedonia?

Macedon (also called Macedonia) had been a powerful kingdom to the north of Greece. By this time in history, it was involved in the Macedonian Wars against Rome, which lasted from 214 B.C. until its defeat in 148 B.C. During this period, it was ruled by several kings of the Antigonid Dynasty, including Antigonus III (also called Antigonus Doson), Philip V, and Perseus, the last king of Macedon.

Who was Philip of Macedon?

Students may be familiar with Philip II, father of Alexander the Great; but the King Philip in this story is Philip V, father of Perseus (studied in Plutarch's Life of Aemilius Paulus). He ruled from 221 to 179 BC.

Top Vocabulary Terms in Titus Flamininus

1. ambuscade, ambush: surprise attack, usually involving people sneaking up behind or leaping out of hiding

2. antagonist: enemy, opponent

3. corn: grain, such as wheat or barley

4. flank: Literally, the side of a person or animal. In military or sporting terms, the right or left side of an army or team. It can also be used as a verb, meaning to be on each side of something or someone. ("The grandparents were flanked by all their grandchildren").

5. foot, horse: foot-soldiers (infantry) and soldiers on horseback (cavalry)

6. garrison: Can refer either to military troops themselves, or the place they defend or where they live (a fort or army base). The word can also be used as a verb, e.g. the troops can be garrisoned somewhere, meaning they are sent out to occupy or defend the place.

7. invincible: unbeatable, unconquerable

8. phalanx: a favourite Macedonian military formation, where the foot-soldiers stood close together, using shields to form a protective wall in front of them

9. spite: When used as a verb, it means to offend or annoy someone.

10. spoil: Used as a verb, it means to loot, plunder. Spoil or spoils can also be a noun meaning loot, treasure. The word booty is used to mean the same thing.

11. strait: narrow, tight; strict

12. victuals (pronounced vittles): food supplies. Also called provisions.

Lesson One

Introduction

Do you think you could look at a class photograph and pick out the leaders of tomorrow? How would you choose?

Plutarch often starts out his Lives by giving someone's family story or the details of his childhood or education. Titus Flamininus is introduced as a young man going through the usual Roman military training--but with unusual speed and determination.

Vocabulary

form and stature: Literally, shape and size; but "stature" can also mean one's social standing, and/or qualities of nobility and greatness.

Apollo: a major Greek and Roman god (the name was used by both groups)

Circus Maximus: a chariot-racing stadium in Rome

temper of his mind: his temperament, or personality

benefactor: one who helps or shows kindness to someone else

when the city of Rome had greatest wars. . . : see Historic Occasions, below

rudiments of soldiery: basic training

propraetor: provincial governor

consulship: see introductory notes

the Senate preferred it . . . : they let the citizens vote on the matter

war against Philip and the Macedonians: Second Macedonian War

by lot: Either of the two consuls could have acted as general, but Titus was chosen (apparently by the equivalent of drawing straws)

People

Hannibal: general of the city of Carthage

Marcellus: Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Roman general and statesman, the subject of Plutarch's Life of Marcellus. He was consul in 222, 215 (he was elected but stepped aside), 214, 210, and 208 B.C.

Fulvius and Manius: Marcus Fulvius and Manius Curius, tribunes of the people in 198 B.C.

Sextus Aelius: Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus, consul along with Titus

Historic Occasions

234 B.C.: Birth of Marcus Cato the Censor (Cato the Elder)

228 B.C.: Birth of Titus Flamininus

218-201 B.C.: Second Punic War (Carthage defeated by Rome)

214-205 B.C.: First Macedonian War

208 B.C.: Probable beginning of Titus' military career, during the Punic War; the death in battle of his first general, Marcellus

206 B.C.: Nabis took over the throne of Sparta

205-202 B.C.: Titus was governor of Tarentum

203 B.C.: Macedonia signed an alliance with the Seleucid Empire

201-200 B.C.: Titus involved in resettling veterans in southern Italy

200-197 B.C.: Second Macedonian War

198 B.C.: Titus became consul of Rome, although he was below the required age

198 B.C.: Titus led Roman forces against Philip of Macedon

On the Map

Review as necessary places on a historical map (showing this time period if possible) such as Italy/Rome, Greece/Athens/Sparta, Macedon, and the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas.

Carthage: a city in north Africa which had been at war for many years with Rome

Tarentum: now Taranto; a city in Apulia, on the heel of Italy's "boot"

Narnia and Cossa: two cities that the Romans wanted to "inhabit" at that time (see Historic Occasions). Narnia (also called Narni) was named after the river Nar. When C.S. Lewis was young, he saw "Narni" in an atlas, and remembered it later when he needed a name for his fictional land.

Reading

Prologue

It is easy to see Titus Quintius Flamininus' form and stature by his statue, which is now set up at Rome, near to that of Apollo (that was brought from Carthage), and is placed right against the coming in to the Circus Maximus, under which there is an inscription in Greek letters.

The temper of his mind is said to have been of the warmest, both in anger and in kindness, not indeed equally so in both respects; as in punishing he was ever moderate, never inflexible; but whatever courtesy or good turn he set about, he went through with it, and was as perpetually kind and obliging to those on whom he had poured his favours, as if they, not he, had been the benefactors; exerting himself for the security and preservation of what he seemed to consider his noblest possessions, those to whom he had done good. But being ever thirsty after honour, and passionate for glory, if anything of a greater and more extraordinary nature were to be done, he was eager to be the doer of it himself; and took more pleasure in those that needed, than in those that were capable of conferring favours; looking on the former as objects for his virtue, and on the latter as competitors in glory.

Part One

He came to man's estate when the city of Rome had greatest wars and trouble. At that time all the youth of Rome who were of the age to carry weapons were sent to the wars to learn to the art of commanding; and Flamininus, having passed through the rudiments of soldiery, received his first charge in the war against Hannibal, as tribune under Marcellus, then consul. Marcellus, being slain by an ambush Hannibal had laid for him, was cut off. But Titus received the appointment of propraetor of the province and city of Tarentum, which was now taken again the second time.

In this government of his, he won the reputation as much of a good and just man as he did of an expert and skillful captain. By reason whereof, when the Romans were requested to send men to inhabit the cities of Narnia and Cossa, he was appointed the chief leader of them, which chiefly gave him heart and courage to level his aim immediately at the consulship. Having these colonies, and all their interest ready at his service, he offered himself as candidate; but the tribunes of the people, Fulvius and Manius, spoke against him, and said it was out of all reason that a man of such raw years, one who was yet, as it were, untrained, uninitiated in the first sacred rites and mysteries of government, should, in contempt of the laws, intrude and force himself into the office of the highest dignity. However, the Senate preferred it wholly to the voices of the people: who presently pronounced him consul, along with Sextus Aelius, although he was not yet thirty years old.

Part Two

The war against Philip and the Macedonians fell to Titus by lot; in the which methinks Fortune greatly favoured the Romans' affairs, that made such a man general of wars; as neither the people nor the state of things which were now to be dealt with were such as to require a general who would always be upon the point of force and mere blows, but rather were accessible to persuasion and gentle usage. It is true that the kingdom of Macedon furnished supplies enough to Philip for actual battle with the Romans; but to maintain a long and lingering war he must call in aid from Greece; must there procure his supplies; and there find his means of retreat. Greece, in a word, would be his resource for all the requisites of his army. Unless, therefore, the Greeks could be withdrawn from siding with Philip, this war with him must not expect its decision from a single battle.

Moreover, Greece (which never before bore the Romans any great goodwill) would not have dealt then so quickly in friendship with them, had not their general Titus been of a kind, gentle nature, one who worked rather by fair means than force; who could both eloquently utter his mind to them, and courteously also hear them speak, that had to do with him; and who chiefly ministered justice and equity to every man alike. But the story of his actions will best illustrate these particulars.

Narration and Discussion

How was it that Titus rose so quickly through the Roman ranks, jumping over most of the lower positions?

Why was Titus a fortunate choice to lead the army at that time?

For older students and further thought: Are those to whom we have done good really our "possessions" and "objects for [our] virtue?" This idea (for instance, that those we have helped are then bound to us by their gratitude) will come up again when Titus declares Greece "free" (Lesson Six). On the other side, is there anyone to whom you owe a debt of gratitude, and how far would you take that loyalty?

Taking it even further: What is the difference between seeing others as "competitors in glory," and following Paul's advice in Romans 12?

Creative narration: An online search for "statue of Titus Quintius/Quinctius Maximus" does not show much, although there is one bronze statue which is thought to be that of Titus, and there are gold coins called "staters" with his image. Using whatever art materials you like, create your own version of a Titus statue or coin.

Lesson Two

Introduction

Imagine that you work for a big company, and you've just been promoted to president. You have your choice now of how you spend your days. Should you call a big company meeting with your bothersome board of directors; or stay in your office and order lunch? Go on a business trip to negotiate with someone who's ruthlessly taking over a lot of smaller companies; or spend the week planning a party? In his campaign in Epirus, Titus decided to take the active approach.

Vocabulary

skirmishing: fighting small battles

scouting here and there for passes and provisions: also translated "take some strait, or to cut off victuals," meaning they captured a small passage, or harassed the other army. Titus thought these were rather puny achievements.

in ostentation of the honour and in domestic administration: enjoying the status of the position, and taking care of local problems

protracting: extending

their army by sea: their navy

conduct: control

quagmire: swamp

covert: cover, protection

envying one another: competing with each other; racing

acclamations: cheers

temperance and moderation: restrained behaviour

People

Sulpicius (or Sulpitius): Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus, a Roman general, consul (in 211 and 200 B.C.) and dictator (in 203 B.C.). Plutarch (or Titus) does not give him much credit here for his role during the Second Macedonian War, but he did secure territory and take some towns for Rome, which convinced the Aetolian League to ally itself with Rome.

Publius: Publius Villius Tappulus, consul in 199 B.C. He took over the military command from Sulpicius but did not fight any major battles.

Scipio: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Roman statesman and general known particularly for his role in the Punic Wars against Hannibal, such as the victory at the Battle of Zama (202 B.C.).

Historic Occasions

198 B.C.: Roman victory, led by Titus, at the Battle of the Aous

On the Map

Epirus: a mountainous region in the northwest of Ancient Greece. It is now shared between modern-day Greece and Albania.

River Apsus: a river in western Albania, now called the Seman

Thessaly: a major region of central Greece, also known as Aeolia (not to be confused with Aetolia)

Dassaretus or Dassarenses: the region of the Dassaretii tribe, which is now part of Albania and North Macedonia

Reading

Part One

Titus observed that both Sulpicius and Publius, who had been his predecessors in that command, had not taken the field against the Macedonians till late in the year; and then, too, had not set their hands properly to the war, but had kept skirmishing, and scouting here and there for passes and provisions, and never came to close fighting with Philip. He resolved not to trifle away a year, as they had done, at home, in ostentation of the honour and in domestic administration, and only then to join the army, with the pitiful hope of protracting the term of office through a second year, acting as consul in the first, and as general in the latter. He did willingly leave all his honours and dignities he might have enjoyed by his office at Rome.

He therefore besought the Senate that they would appoint his brother Lucius Quintius as admiral of the navy; and took with him three thousand "old soldiers" (but still young and vigorous), of those who, under Scipio, had defeated Hasdrubal in Spain, and Hannibal in Africa. With this company he passed the seas without danger, and landed in Epirus, where he found Publius encamped with his army, over against Philip, who of long time had lain in camp about the mouth of the River Apsus, to guard the strait and passage which is the entry into Epirus. So that Publius had lain still there, and done nothing, by reason of the natural force and hardness of the place.

Titus therefore took upon himself the conduct of the army, and, having dismissed Publius, examined the ground. It is a long valley walled on either side with great high mountains, as those which shut in the valley of Tempe in Thessaly. Howbeit it had no such goodly woods, nor green forests, nor fair meadows, nor other like places of pleasure, as the other side had: but it was a great deep marsh or quagmire, through the midst whereof the River Apsus did run, being, in greatness and swiftness of stream, very like to the River Peneus. It covers the foot of those hills, and leaves only a craggy, narrow path cut out beside the stream, not easily passable at any time for an army, but not at all when guarded by an enemy.

There were some, therefore, who would have had Titus make a circuit through Dassaretis, and take an easy and safe road by the district of Lyncus. But he, fearing that if he should engage himself too far from the sea in barren and untilled countries, and Philip should decline fighting, he might, through want of provisions, be constrained to march back again to the seaside without effecting anything, as his predecessor had done before him, embraced the resolution of forcing his way over the mountains.

Part Two

Now Philip kept the top of the mountains with his army; and when the Romans forced their way up the hills, they were received with darts, slings, and shot, that lighted amongst them here and there: insomuch as the skirmish was very hot for the time it lasted, and many were slain and hurt on either side. There seemed but little likelihood of thus ending the war; but some of the men, who fed there cattle thereabouts, came to Titus with a discovery that there was a roundabout way which the enemy neglected to guard, through which they undertook to conduct his army, and to bring it, within three days at furthest, to the top of the hill. To gain the surer credit with him, they said they were sent to him by Charops, the son of Machatas. Charops was a leading man in Epirus, who was friendly to the Romans, and aided them (though, for fear of Philip, secretly). Titus gave their information belief, and sent a captain with four thousand foot and three hundred horse, these herdsmen being their guides, but kept in bonds. In the daytime they lay still under the covert of the hollow and woody places; but in the night they marched all night by moonlight, which was then, by good hap, at the full.

Titus, having sent these men away, lay quiet with his main body, merely keeping up the attention of the enemy by some slight skirmishing. But when the day arrived that those who stole round were expected upon the top of the hill, he drew up his forces early in the morning, as well the light-armed as the heavy, and divided them into three parts. With the one of them he himself went on that side of the river where the way is straitest, making his bands to march directly against the side of the hill. The Macedonians again shot lustily at them from the height of the hill, and in certain places amongst the rocks they came to the sword. At the selfsame time, the two other troops on either hand of him did their endeavour likewise to get up the hill, and, as it were, envying one another, they climbed up with great courage against the sharp and steep hanging of the mountain.

Whilst they were struggling forward, the sun rose, and a thin smoke, like a mist, hanging on the hills, was seen rising at a distance, unperceived by the enemy, being behind them, as they stood on the heights. The Romans, though they were not assured of it, did hope, being in the midst of the fight, that it was their fellows they looked for. But when they saw it increased still more, and more, and in such sort that it darkened all the air: they no longer doubted but it was the fire-signal of their companions; and, raising a triumphant shout, forcing their way onwards, they drove the enemy back into the roughest ground; while the other party echoed back their acclamations from the top of the mountain.

The Macedonians fled with all the speed they could make; there fell, indeed, not more than two thousand of them; for the difficulties of the place rescued them from pursuit. But the Romans spoiled their camp, took all that they found in their tents, took also their slaves, and won the passage into the mountains, by the which they entered the country of Epirus: but with such order and discipline, with such temperance and moderation, that, though they were far from the sea, at a great distance from their vessels, and stinted of their monthly allowance of corn; and though they had much difficulty in buying, yet they never took anything of the country, though they found great store and plenty of all riches in it.

For Titus was advertised that Philip, making a flight (rather than a march) through Thessaly, forced the inhabitants from the towns to take shelter in the mountains, burnt down the towns themselves, and gave up as spoil to his soldiers all the property which is had been found impossible to remove, abandoning, as it would seem, the whole country to the Romans. Titus was, therefore, very desirous, and entreated his soldiers, that they would pass through it as if it were their own, or as if a place trusted into their hands.

Narration and Discussion

Explain how Titus won the Battle of the Aous.

Discuss the conduct of the Roman soldiers under Titus. Why did he not allow them to rob or molest the civilians?

Creative narration: Write or act out a scene between some of the Roman soldiers and the citizens of Thessaly.

Lesson Three

Introduction

If you were told that your country was being invaded by barbarians, what would you expect them to look like? How would you expect them to act? The Greeks (at least the Boeotians) were surprised when they met a young, well-mannered Roman general named Titus Flamininus; and they decided to trust him.

Vocabulary

this moderate and orderly conduct: The Roman troops simply marched through the country, without burning towns or stealing food.

partisan: supporter

compulsion: force

he marched into Boeotia: Plutarch makes it sound as if Titus' march was an act of war, but it seems rather that he (and Attalus) had arrived in Thebes merely as negotiators, to persuade the Boeotians to ally themselves with Rome in their war against Macedon.

deference: respect

play the advocate: represent his city by acting as a negotiator

swooned away: collapsed, fainted; it seems likely he suffered a stroke

he still continued his charge in these wars: see Historic Occasions. Plutarch's chronology is a bit off here: Titus had his term as general extended in 198 B.C; but the meeting at Thebes took place afterwards, in 197.

People

Pyrrhus: king of Epirus from 307 to 302 B.C. and again from 295 to 272 B.C. He is the subject of Plutarch's Life of Pyrrhus.

Brachyllas (or Brachylles): Boeotian leader, and ally of Macedon (he commanded the Boeotian troops at the Battle of Cynoscephalae)

King Attalus: Attalus I, longtime ruler of Pergamon (a Greek city in Mysia, which is in present-day Turkey).

Historic Occasions

198 B.C.: Titus expected to return to Rome at the end of the year, and therefore attempted to negotiate peace with Macedon. During the negotiations, however, he was appointed proconsul, which extended the term of his leadership and authorized him to continue the war.

197 B.C.: Titus and Attalus I travelled to Thebes

197 B.C.: Death of Attalus I

On the Map

Thessaly: see previous lesson

Achaeans, Aetolians: see introductory notes

Opus (Opuntians): A city on the coast of Greece, opposite Euboea. It was the home of a tribe called the Locrians, who later combined the names, calling themselves the Opuntian Locrians, and the territory around it the Opuntian Locris.

Boeotia: a region of central Greece. Its largest city was Thebes. Historical trivia: the Boeotians originally lived in Thessaly.

Reading

Part One

Indeed, the Roman soldiers quickly perceived what benefit they derived from this moderate and orderly conduct. For they no sooner set foot in Thessaly but the cities opened their gates, and the Greeks within Thermopylae were all eagerness and excitement to ally themselves with them. The Achaeans also, on the other side, did renounce the league and alliance they had made with Philip; and furthermore did determine, in their council, to make war with him on the Romans' side. And although the Aetolians were at that time friends and confederates with the Romans, and that they did show themselves very loving to take their part in these wars: nevertheless when they desired the Opuntians that they would put their city into their (Aetolian) hands, and were offered that it should be kept and defended from Philip: they (the Opuntians) would not hearken thereto, but sent for Titus, and put themselves and their goods wholly into his protection.

They say that when Pyrrhus first saw the Romans' army range in order of battle from the top of a hill, he said: "This order of the barbarous people, setting of their men in battle array, was not done in a barbarous manner." And those also that never had seen Titus before, and came for to speak with him, were compelled in a manner to say as much. For where they had heard the Macedonians say that there came a captain of the barbarous people that destroyed all before him by force of arms, and subdued whole countries by violence; they said, to the contrary, that they found him a man indeed young of years, howbeit gentle, and courteous to look on, and that spoke the Greek tongue excellently well, and was a lover of honour. They were wonderfully pleased and attracted; and when they left him, they filled the cities, wherever they were, with favourable feelings for him, and with the belief that in him they might find the protector and assertor of their liberties.

Part Two

Afterwards, on Philip's professing a desire for peace, Titus made a tender to him of peace and friendship, upon the condition that the Greeks be left to their own laws, and that he should withdraw his garrisons; which he refused to comply with. Now after these proposals, the universal belief even of the favourers and partisans of Philip was that the Romans came not to fight against the Greeks, but for the Greeks, against the Macedonians. Whereupon all Greece came in, and offered themselves unto Titus without compulsion.

But as he marched into Boeotia, without committing the least act of hostility, the nobility and chief men of Thebes came out of their city to meet him, devoted (under the influence of Brachylles) to the Macedonian alliance, but desirous at the same tie to show honour and deference to Titus [omission]. Titus received them in the most obliging and courteous manner, but kept going gently on, questioning and inquiring of them, and sometimes entertaining them with narratives of his own, to the end that his soldiers, being wearied with journeying, might in the meantime take good breath; and so marching on, by little and little, he entered into the city with them.

The lords of Thebes were not greatly pleased with this, but yet they dared not refuse him, as a good number of his men attended him in. Titus, however, now he was within, as if he had not had the city at his mercy, came forward and addressed them, urging them to join the Roman interest.

King Attalus followed, to the same effect. And he, indeed, trying to play the advocate, beyond what it seems his age could bear, was seized, in the midst of his speech, with a sudden flux or dizziness, and swooned away; and, not long after, was conveyed by ship into Asia, and died there. The Boeotians then joined the Roman alliance.

Part Three

But now, when Philip sent an embassy to Rome, Titus dispatched away agents on his part, too, to solicit the Senate if they should continue the war, to continue him in his command; or, if they determined an end to that, that he might have the honour of concluding the peace. Having a great passion for distinction, his fear was that if another general were commissioned to carry on the war, the honour even of what was passed would be lost to him; and his friends transacted matters so well on his behalf, that Philip was unsuccessful in his proposals; neither was there sent any other general in Titus' place, but he still continued his charge in these wars.

Narration and Discussion

Why did "all Greece offer itself to Titus without compulsion?"

For older students: In Dryden's translation, Titus is called "a Greek in his voice and language, and a lover of honour." Is there a difference in meaning between that and North's choice of words?

Creative narration #1: One of your know-it-all relatives comes to dinner, and says that "the Romans are here not to fight against the Greeks, but for the Greeks, against the Macedonians." You think he's wrong, but you don't want to start a fight either. What do you say?

Creative narration #2: Write a letter home from a member of Titus' army, describing the campaign in Epirus, and the further adventures in Boeotia. How did Titus convince the Greeks to submit to him?

Lesson Four

Introduction

Philip of Macedon was now in Thessaly, so Titus marched his troops there to fight him. The armies were equal in number, but the Macedonians discovered a problem with their famous phalanx formation: it only worked on level ground.

Vocabulary

determination: decision

engage: fight with

other manner of soldiers than the Persians: a different sort of opponent from the one they had fought previously

theater: stage, place of action

commenced a harangue: started to make a speech

eminence: bit of raised ground; hill

despondency: depression, gloominess

new supplies: replacement troops

the whole armies engaged: Until now, only a small group of soldiers had been fighting; when the fog lifted, everyone else joined in.

sundered: separated

stay up one another: support each other

routed: beaten

People

Alexander the Great: Alexander III of Macedon (365-323 B.C.), the famous king and empire-builder

Historic Occasions

197 B.C.: Rome defeated Macedon at the Battle of Cynoscephalae (ending the Second Macedonian War)

On the Map

Scotussa: a town in Thessaly

Cynoscephalae: a range of hills in Thessaly

Reading

Part One

Titus no sooner received the Senate's determination, but, big with hopes, he marched directly into Thessaly to engage Philip. His army consisted of twenty-six thousand foot and four hundred horse; the forces of Philip were much about the same number. In this eagerness to encounter, they advanced against each other till both were near Scotussa; where they resolved to hazard a battle.

So neither they nor their men were afraid to see themselves one so near another; but rather to the contrary, the Romans on the one side took greater heart and courage unto them, desiring to fight, as thinking with themselves what great honour they should win to overcome the Macedonians, who were so highly esteemed for their valiantness, by reason of the famous acts that Alexander the Great did by them. And the Macedonians on the other side also, taking the Romans for other manner of soldiers than the Persians, began to have good hope if they might win the field, to make the name of Philip more glorious than that of Alexander.

Titus, therefore, called upon his soldiers to play the part of valiant men, because they were now to act their parts upon the most illustrious theater of the world, Greece, and so contend with the bravest antagonists. And Philip, on the other side, commenced a harangue to his men, as usual before an engagement; and to be the better heard (whether it were merely a mischance, or the result of unseasonable haste, not observing what he did), he mounted an eminence outside their camp, which proved to be a burying-place; and much disturbed by the despondency that seized his army at the unluckiness of the omen, all that day kept in his camp, and declined fighting.

Part Two

But on the morrow, as day came on, after a soft and rainy night, the clouds changing into a mist filled all the plain with thick darkness; and a dense foggy air descending, by the time it was full day, from the adjacent mountains into the ground betwixt the two camps, concealed them from each other's view. The scouts sent out on either side, some for ambuscade, some to discover what the enemies did, falling in upon one another quickly after they were thus detached, began the fight at what are called the Cynos Cephalae or "Dogs' Heads," a number of sharp tops of hills that stand close to one another, and have the name from some resemblance in their shape. In this skirmish there were many changes, as commonly falleth out when they fight in such ill-favoured stony places. For sometime the Romans fled, and the Macedonians chased them: another time the Macedonians that followed the chase were glad to fly themselves, and the Romans who fled before now had them in chase. This change and alteration came, by sending new supplies still from both camps, to relieve them that were distressed and driven to flee.

At length, the heavens clearing up let them see what was going on; upon which, the whole armies engaged. Philip, who was in the right wing, from the advantage of the higher ground which he had, threw on the Romans the whole weight of his phalanx, with a force which they were unable to sustain; the dense array of spears, and the pressure of the compact mass overpowering them. But the king's left wing being broken up by the hilliness of the place, Titus observing it, and cherishing little or no hopes on that side where his own gave ground, made in all haste to the other; and there charged in upon the Macedonians, who, in consequence of the inequality and roughness of the ground, could not keep their phalanx entire, nor line their ranks to any great depth (which is the great point of their strength), but were forced to fight man for man under heavy and unwieldy armour. For the battle of the Macedonians hath this property, that so long as the order is kept close and joined together, it seemeth as it were but the body of a beast of a force invincible. But also after that it is once open, and that they are sundered and not joined together, it doth not only lose the force and power of the whole body, but also of every private soldier that fighteth: partly by reason of the diversity of the weapons wherewith they fight, and partly for that their whole strength consisteth most in the disposing and joining together of their ranks and orders which doth stay up one another, more than doth every private soldier's strength.

When these were routed, some of the Romans gave chase to the fleeing; others charged the flanks of those Macedonians who were still fighting, so that the conquering wing, also, was quickly disordered, took to flight and threw down its arms.

Narration and Discussion

"So neither they nor their men were afraid to see themselves one so near another." Why was that?

For further thought: Consider the description of the phalanx. Dryden translates the passage as ". . . irresistible so long as it is embodied into one, and keeps its order, shield touching shield, all as in a piece; but if it be once broken, not only is the joint-force lost, but the individual soldiers also who composed it, lose each one his own single strength, because of the nature of their armour; and because each of them is strong, rather, as he makes a part of the whole, than in himself." Do you see any similarity to the Body of Christ?

Creative narration: Plutarch said that Titus "called upon his soldiers to play the part of valiant men, because they were now to act their parts upon the most illustrious theater of the world, Greece, and so contend with the bravest antagonists." Write the speech (and the scene) as it might appear in Shakespeare's imaginary play Titus Flamininus.

Follow-up to the above: Can you also write a speech scene for Philip?

Lesson Five

Introduction

Was it the Romans who were responsible for the victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae? Or was it the Aetolians? The answer seemed to matter a great deal to both sides. However, it was definitely the Romans who would decide the future of Macedon, and King Philip.

Vocabulary

occasion: reason

Philip himself got safe off: The Aetolians were blamed for letting Philip get away (because they were busy looting).

ambitious of a reputation: wanting to be admired and respected

admitted an embassy. . . : tried to negotiate with those sent from Philip

making overtures of submission: The Aetolians' argument that Titus was selling them out became irrelevant, as Philip himself was now willing to admit defeat.

reinstated: restored

whom he put in the head: to whom he suggested

dispatching: getting rid of

People

Antiochus III: see introductory notes

Reading

Part One

There were then slain no less than eight thousand, and about five thousand were taken prisoners; and the Aetolians were blamed as having been the main occasion that Philip himself got safe off. For whilst the Romans were in pursuit, they (the Aetolians) fell to ravaging and plundering the camp, and did it so completely, that when the others returned, they found no booty in it. This bred at first hard words, quarrels, and misunderstandings betwixt them. But afterwards they angered Titus worse, challenging the honour of this victory to themselves; because they gave it out through Greece that they alone had overthrown King Philip in the battle.

So that in the songs and ballads the poets made in praise of this victory, which every country and townsman had in his mouth: they always put the Aetolians before the Romans, as in this that followeth, which was currently sung in every place:

"Naked and tombless see, O passer-by,
The thirty thousand men of Thessaly,
Slain by the Aetolians and the Latin band,
That came with Titus from Italia's land;
Alas for mighty Macedon! that day,
Swift as a roe, King Philip fled away."

The poet was Alcaeus that made these verses for to sing, who did them in disgrace of King Philip, falsely increasing the number of his men which died in the battle, only to shame and spite him the more: howbeit he spited Titus thereby, more than Philip, because it was sung in every place. For Philip laughed at it, and to encounter him again with the like mock, he made a song to counterfeit his, as followeth:

"Naked and leafless see, O passer-by,
The cross that shall Alcaeus crucify."

But such little matters extremely fretted Titus, who was ambitious of a reputation among the Greeks; and he therefore acted in all after-occurrences by himself, paying but very slight regard to the Aetolians. This offended them in their turn; and when Titus listened to terms of accommodation, and admitted an embassy upon the proffers of the Macedonian king, the Aetolians made it their business to publish through all the cities of Greece that Titus had sold peace unto Philip, when he might altogether have ended the war, and utterly have destroyed Philip's whole power and empire, who had first brought Greece into bondage.

These slanderous reports and false tales, which the Aetolians spread thus abroad, did much trouble the Romans' friends and confederates; but Philip himself, making overtures of submission of himself and his kingdom to the discretion of Titus and the Romans, put an end to those jealousies; as Titus, by accepting them, did to the war.

Part Two

Titus reinstated Philip in his kingdom of Macedon, but made it a condition that he should quit Greece; and that he should pay one thousand talents. He took from him also all his shipping, save ten vessels; and sent Demetrius, one of his sons, as hostage to Rome; improving his opportunity to the best advantage, and taking wise precautions for the future.

For then Hannibal of Carthage (the great enemy of the Romans), an exile from his own country, came to King Antiochus, whom he put in the head, and earnestly moved, to follow his good fortune, and the increase of his empire. Whom Hannibal so followed with these persuasions, that King Antiochus at length was come to it. And trusting to his former good success, and notable acts, whereby in the wars before he had attained the surname of "Great": he began now to aspire to the monarchy of the whole world, and sought how to find occasion to make wars with the Romans.

So that if Titus (foreseeing that afar off) had not wisely inclined to peace, but if the wars of Antiochus had fallen out together with the wars of King Philip; and if these two, the mightiest princes of the world, had joined together against the city of Rome: then it had been in as great trouble and danger as ever it was before, in the time of their wars against Hannibal. But now, Titus opportunely introducing this peace between the wars, dispatching the present danger before the new one had arrived, at once disappointed Antiochus of his first hopes, and Philip of his last.

Narration and Discussion

Why was it so important to come to peaceful terms with Macedon?

Was Macedon's "punishment" enough? Too much? How might the views on that have differed?

Creative narration: You are Titus, hearing the songs that are being sung about how brave the Aetolians were. Write a scene where you hire a local verse-maker to create something more to your liking.

Lesson Six

Introduction

The Greeks seemed puzzled about what the Roman victory and the declaration of "freedom" meant; and things weren't helped by the agitations of the Aetolian League.

Vocabulary

commissioners: those appointed to a commission or task

garrisoned: keeping a Roman military presence there

prevailed in it: was successful

Isthmian Games: a religious and sporting event similar to the Olympics, but held in the same years as the Nemean Games

betimes: in good time, early

People

Nabis: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

196/195 B.C.: Rome (through Titus Flamininus) ordered Nabis to return Argos to the Achaeans, or face the consequences

196 B.C.: At the Isthmian Games, Titus declared Greece "free"

Reading

Part One

When the ten commissioners, delegated to Titus from the Senate, advised Titus to restore the rest of Greece to their liberty, except for Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias, which should be kept garrisoned for security against Antiochus: the Aetolians on this, breaking out into loud accusations, agitated all the cities, calling upon Titus to strike off the "shackles of Greece" (as Philip used to term those three cities); and asking the Greeks whether it were not matter of much consolation to them that, though their chains weighed heavier, yet they were now smoother and better polished than formerly; and whether Titus were not deservedly admired by them as their benefactor, who had "unshackled the feet" of Greece, but tied her up by the neck.

Titus, vexed and angry at this, made it his request to the Senate, and at last prevailed in it, that the garrisons in these cities should be dismissed; that so the Greeks might be no longer debtors to him for a partial, but for an entire favour.

Part Two

It was now the time of the celebration of the Isthmian games; and the seats around the racecourse were crowded with an unusual multitude of spectators; Greece, after long wars, having regained not only peace, but hopes of liberty, and being able once more to keep holiday in safety. A trumpet sounded to command silence; and the crier, stepping forth amidst the spectators, made proclamation:

That the Senate of Rome, and Titus Quintius Flamininus, consul of the people of Rome, now that they had overthrown King Philip and the Macedonians in battle, did thenceforth discharge from all garrisons, and set at liberty from all taxes, subsidies, and impositions forever, to live after their old ancient laws, and in full liberty: the Corinthians, the Locrians, those of Phocide, those of the Isle of Euboea, the Achaeans, the Phthiotes, the Magnesians, the Thessalians, and the Perrhaebeians.

At first, many heard not at all, and others not distinctly, what was said; but there was a confused and uncertain stir among the assembled people, some wondering, some asking, some calling out to have it proclaimed again. When, therefore, fresh silence was made, the crier raising his voice, succeeded in making himself generally heard, and recited the decree again. A shout of joy followed it, so loud that it was heard as far as the sea. Then all the people that had taken their places, and were set to see the sword players play, rose up all on their feet. There was no further thought of the entertainment: all were only eager to leap up and salute and address their thanks to the "deliverer and champion of Greece."

A Sidebar about Loud Noises

What we often hear alleged, in proof of the force of human voices, was actually verified upon this occasion. Crows that were accidentally flying over the course fell down dead into it. The disruption of the air must be the cause of it; for the voices being numerous, and the acclamation violent, the air breaks with it and can no longer give support to the birds, but lets them tumble, like one that should attempt to walk upon a vacuum. Unless we will rather say that it was the violence of the cry which struck the birds passing through the air, as if they had been hit with arrows, and so made them fall down dead to the earth. It may be also, that there was some hurling wind in the air, as we do see sometime in the sea, when it riseth high, and many times turneth about the waves, by violence of the storm.

Back to the Story

So it is, that if Titus had not prevented the whole multitude of people which came to see him, and that he had not got him away betimes, before the games were ended: he would have hardly escaped from being stifled amongst them, the people came so thick about him from every place. But after that they were weary of crying, and singing around his pavilion until night, in the end they went their way: and as they went, if they met any of their kin, friends or citizens, they did kiss and embrace one another for joy, and so supped, and made merry together.

And there, no doubt, redoubling their joy, they began to recollect and talk of the state of Greece, what wars she had incurred in defense of her liberty, and yet was never perhaps mistress of a more settled or grateful one than this which other men's labours had won for her; almost without one drop of blood, or one citizen's loss to be mourned for she had this day put into her hands the most glorious of rewards, and best worth the contending for.

Narration and Discussion

Why do you think Plutarch included the story about the crows? Does it have a point to make about the power of human voices?

The word "freedom" meant different things to the Romans and to the Greeks. For example, in Greek culture, a freed slave was completely free; in Rome, a freed slave remained the "client" of his former master, and he was expected to show him loyalty and respect (especially politically). When we apply this to a large group of people who had been "freed," we can see the problem. Greeks hearing "freedom" would understand it as the right to rule themselves, without further strings attached; but in the Roman viewpoint, the Greeks should be grateful and submissive, acknowledging the debt they owed to Rome, and not politically troublesome or thinking about alliances with enemies.

The Greeks were asked "whether it were not matter of much consolation to them that, though their chains weighed heavier, yet they were now smoother and better polished than formerly. . . " Is that a fair description of life under Roman rule? If you had to be "chained," which would you prefer?

For further thought #1: why was it hard for Titus to see Roman rule from that perspective? What kind of image might he have preferred?

For further thought #2: Christian students may want to explore Biblical passages on freedom (e.g. John 8:31-36; Galatians 5:1).

Lesson Seven

Introduction

Titus continued to dismantle the Macedonian fortifications, and to act as the "liberator" (and manager) of Greece.

Vocabulary

For should a man except. . . : With the exceptions of. . .

the achievement at Marathon, etc.: Famous battles, especially of the war against the Persians

[Greece] erected all her trophies to her own shame and misery: It is worthwhile to remember here that Plutarch, though he makes such harsh comments, was Greek himself, born in the town of Chaeronea in the region of Boeotia.

a foreign people: that is, the Romans

Nemean Games: a religious and athletic event similar to the Olympics, held every two or three years at Nemea

suppressed their factions: put an end to certain small "troublemaking" political groups

The story goes. . . : This is something that had happened long before.

strangers: foreigners

requite: repay

beneficence: kindness

popular governments: cities with a democratic form of government

People

Agesilaus, Lysander, Nicias, and Alcibiades: famous Greek leaders of the past

Lentulus, Titillius: Roman officers

Publius Villius: mentioned in Lesson Two

Lycurgus: an orator of ancient Athens

Xenocrates: Xenocrates of Chalcedon, who lived from c. 396-314 B.C.

Historic Occasions

196 B.C.: Titus proclaimed Greece's freedom again at the Nemean Games

On the Map

Chalcis: the largest town on the island of Euboea

Magnesia: There were several places by that name, including two cities and the southeastern region of Thessaly, the home of the Magnetes; based on references later on, this seems to refer to the region rather than either of the cities.

Argos: a city in the Peloponnese

Reading

Part One

It is a very rare thing amongst men, to find a man very valiant, and wise withal: but yet of all sorts of valiant men, it is harder to find a just man. Such men as Agesilaus, Lysander, Nicias, and Alcibiades knew how to play the general's part, how to manage a war, how to bring off their men victorious by land and sea; but how to employ that success to generous and honest purposes they had not known. For should a man except the achievement at Marathon, the sea-fight at Salamis, the engagements at Plataea and Thermopylae, and Cimon's exploits at Eurymedon and on the coast of Cyprus: Greece fought all her battles against, and to enslave, herself. She erected all her trophies to her own shame and misery, and was brought to ruin and desolation almost wholly by the guilt and ambition of her great men. Whereas a foreign people, the which (as it should seem) had very small occasion to move them to do it (for that they have had no great familiarity with ancient Greece, and through the counsel and good wisdom of the which it should seem very strange that Greece could receive any benefit) have notwithstanding with dangerous battles and infinite troubles, delivered it from oppression, and servitude, of violent lords and tyrants.

This, and suchlike talk, did at that time occupy the Grecians' heads; whilst Titus by his actions made good what had been proclaimed. For he immediately dispatched away Lentulus to Asia, to set the Bargylians free; Titillius to Thrace, to see the garrisons of Philip removed out of the towns and islands there; while Publius Villius set sail in order to treat with Antiochus about the freedom of the Greeks under him. Titus himself passed on to Chalcis, and sailing thence to Magnesia, dismantled the garrisons there, and surrendered the government into the people's hands.

Part Two

Shortly after, he was appointed at Argos to preside in the Nemean Games, and did his part in the management of that solemnity singularly well; and made a second publication there, by the crier of liberty, to the Greeks; and, visiting all the cities, he exhorted them to the practice of obedience to law, of constant justice, and unity, and friendship one towards another. He suppressed their factions; brought home their political exiles; and, in short, his conquest over the Macedonians did not seem to give him a more lively pleasure than to find himself prevalent in reconciling Greeks with Greeks; so that their liberty seemed now the least part of the kindness he conferred upon them.

The story goes that when Lycurgus the orator had rescued Xenocrates the philosopher from the collectors who were hurrying him away to prison for non-payment of the tax which strangers inhabiting within the city of Athens were to pay [omission]; Xenocrates afterwards meeting the children of Lycurgus, said unto them: "I do well requite your father's good turn he did me: for I am the cause that he is praised and commended of every man, for the kindness he shewed on my behalf." But the returns which attended Titus Quintius and the Romans, for their beneficence to the Greeks, terminated not in empty praises only; for these proceedings gained them, deservedly, credit and confidence, and thereby power, among all nations: for many not only admitted the Roman commanders, but even sent and entreated to be under their protection; neither was this done by popular governments alone, or by single cities, but kings oppressed by kings cast themselves into these protecting hands. Insomuch that, in a very short time (with the favour and help of the gods, as I am persuaded), all the world came to submit themselves to their obedience, and under the protection of their empire.

Narration and Discussion

"So that in the end, Greece was utterly destroyed and overthrown, and that chiefly through the wickedness and self will of her governors and captains of the cities, one envying another's doing." Would you say that the Greeks' newfound trust in Titus (or in Rome) was wise, or were they taken in? Did they have any choice?

For further thought or debate: "It is a very rare thing amongst men, to find a man very valiant, and wise withal: but yet of all sorts of valiant men, it is harder to find a just man." Was Titus Flamininus a just man?

Creative narration: You are a "king oppressed by kings," in a small state somewhere outside of Greece, and you are trying to save your kingdom and help your people (both if possible). You have heard about what Titus has achieved in Greece, and you are interested (or, conversely, your advisors are interested but you are wary). Write out the pros and cons of putting yourself under Roman protection; or write or act out a scene between you and the advisors.

Lesson Eight

Introduction

Before you start, review what you know of Titus so far. What key words characterize his personality and his leadership?

In this passage, Titus engaged in "a goodly and just war against Nabis, the cursed and wicked tyrant of Lacedaemon." (Obviously Plutarch was not planning on writing a Life of Nabis.)

Vocabulary

target: shield

profligate: extravagant, self-indulgent

Arcadian: refers to Philopoemen's home region

consul of Rome: This seems to refer to Titus' general status, rather than whether he was actually consul at the time.

triumph: a parade through Rome to celebrate a hero

manumission: release from slavery

in that habit: dressed like that

massy: solid

mediation: persuasion, influence

remit: pay back. Macedon had been "fined" a certain amount, but since there was more than enough in the treasure to consider it paid, the Romans sent him back the difference, plus the son they had been holding as hostage.

People

Nabis, Philopoemen: see introductory notes for this study

Historic Occasions

218-201 B.C.: Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage (mentioned briefly here); as noted in Lesson One, Titus began his military career around 208 B.C.

207 B.C.: Nabis became ruler in Sparta

205 B.C.: Nabis signed a peace treaty with Rome, and then began to build up Sparta's military resources and to take back, or take over, certain territories. He also built walls around the city of Sparta for the first time in its history.

201 B.C.: Sparta invaded Messene, although they backed off when threatened by Philopoemen's army

200 B.C. and in the following years: As Sparta's strength increased (and the Roman army was led by generals less skillful than Philopoemen, because he was out of office for several years), the Achaean League asked for help from Macedon, but were refused. Nabis collaborated with Macedon and received control of Argos; but then switched his allegiance to Rome.

199 B.C.: Titus was elected consul of Rome for the following year (in spite of being slightly under thirty, the minimum age)

198 B.C.: Titus sacked the port city of Antikyra (or Anticyra) on the Gulf of Corinth, and then used it as a Roman military base

195 B.C.: Antiochus III, having conquered most of the territory he wanted in Asia, became interested in Europe

195 B.C.: Laconian War: Roman forces led by Titus invaded Laconia (the region of Sparta); Nabis was forced to surrender Argos and the port of Gythium.

c.194 B.C.: Titus was given a triumph in Rome

On the Map

Lacedaemon: Sparta; see introductory notes

Reading

Prologue

Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of any other of his actions, as appears by the inscription with which he dedicated some silver targets, together with his own shields, to Apollo at Delphi:

Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove,
Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love,
Titus, of great Aeneas's race, leaves this
In honour of the liberty of Greece.

He offered also to Apollo a golden crown, with this inscription:

This golden crown upon thy locks divine,
O blest Latonia's son, was set to shine
By the great captain of the Aenean name.
O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame!

[omission for length]

Part One

Titus now engaged in a most gallant and just war upon Nabis, that most profligate and lawless tyrant of the Lacedaemonians; but in the end he disappointed the expectations of the Greeks. For when he had an opportunity of taking him, he purposely let it slip, and struck up a peace with him, leaving Sparta to bewail an unworthy slavery; whether it were that he feared, if the war should be protracted, that Rome would send a new general who might rob him of the glory of it; or that he stood jealous and envious of the honour they did unto Philopoemen: who, having shown himself in every place as excellent a captain as ever came in Greece, and having done notable acts and famous service, both of great wisdom, and also of valiantness, and specially in the Achaeans' war, he was as much honoured and reverenced of the Achaeans, in the theaters and common assemblies, even as Titus was. Whereat Titus was marvellously offended, for he thought it unreasonable that an Arcadian, who had never been general of an army but in small little wars against his neighbours, should be as much esteemed and honoured as a consul of Rome, waging war as the protector of Greece in general. But, besides, Titus was not without an apology, too, for what he did: namely, that he put an end to the war only when he foresaw that the tyrant's destruction must have been attended with the ruin of the other Spartans.

Part Two

The Achaeans, by various decrees, did much to show Titus honour. None of these returns, however, seemed to come up to the height of the actions that merited them; unless it were one present they made him, which affected and pleased him beyond all the rest, which was this. The Romans, who in the war with Hannibal, had the misfortune to be taken captives, were sold about here and there, and dispersed into slavery; twelve hundred in number were at that time in Greece. The reverse of their fortune always rendered them objects of compassion; but then much more was their misery to be pitied, when these captives found, in the Romans' army, some of them their sons, others their brethren, and the rest their fellows and friends, free and conquerors, and themselves slaves and bondmen. It grieved Titus much to see these poor men in such miserable captivity, notwithstanding he would not take them by force from those that had them. Whereupon the Achaeans redeemed and bought them for five hundred pence a man; and having gathered them together into a troop, they presented all the Roman captives unto Titus, even as he was ready to take ship to return into Italy: which present made him return home with greater joy and satisfaction, having received for his noble deeds so honourable a recompense, and worthy of himself, that was so loving a man to his citizens and country.

And surely, that only was the ornament (in my opinion) that did most beautify his triumph. It is the custom for slaves, upon their manumission, to shave their heads and wear felt hats; and these redeemed Romans followed in that habit in the procession. To add to the glory of this show, there were the Grecian helmets, the Macedonian targets and long spears, borne with the rest of the spoils in public view, besides vast sums of money (Tuditanus says 3,713 pounds weight of massy gold, 43,270 of silver, and 14,514 pieces of coined gold), which was all over and above the thousand talents with Philip owed to Rome, and which the Romans were afterwards prevailed upon, chiefly by the mediation of Titus, to remit to Philip, declaring him their ally and confederate, and sending him home his son who had been held hostage.

Narration and Discussion

Why did Titus make peace with Nabis instead of destroying him? What are the possible reasons that Plutarch suggests?

Some people crave thrills and excitement to the point that even hang gliding becomes boring. Some people will do almost anything for love and affection. What was it that Titus just couldn't get enough of? How could that desire begin to be a problem for him?

Creative narration: Dramatize the scene where the Achaeans told Titus, "We bought you a going-away present."

Lesson Nine

Introduction

Antiochus III (aided by the Aetolians) arrived, trying to stir things up against Rome, and to convince the Greeks that they needed to be "re-liberated." Titus returned to Greece, and his presence seemed to ease some of the tension. Antiochus was defeated at Thermopylae and retreated; the question for the Romans then became how to treat his former Greek allies.

Special History Note: Macedonian Happenings At This Time

At the end of this reading, Titus complains that the Romans were allowing Philip to "bear away the prize and profit of the war." But Antiochus, not Philip, was the main antagonist of the lesson. What was Philip doing during this time to provoke such a remark?

Because Macedon had assisted Rome against the Spartans, Philip was rewarded (as noted at the end of Lesson Eight) with the money he was said to have "overpaid," the return of his son Demetrius, and the status of a Roman ally. Plutarch says that he was also allowed to "ransack" territories such as those of the Dolopes and Magnetians. Over the next few years, Philip began to strengthen Macedon from the inside as well, re-opening mines and cleaning up its finances. He also began to claim territory in the Balkan Peninsula, something that annoyed Rome greatly. Here is the sad twist: Demetrius, possibly because he had spent time in Rome (first as hostage and then as ambassador), was more pro-Roman than his father, and Rome supported him with hints that perhaps he should become the next king, ahead of his brother Perseus. That increasing conflict led to Demetrius' execution for treason, at the age of twenty-six (see the Historic Occasions for Lesson Twelve). Philip, perhaps out of remorse, fell into ill health and died soon afterwards, leaving Perseus as the last king of Macedon.

Vocabulary

abetted: aided, supported

wanted: needed

in the Roman interests: loyal to Rome

before they had committed themselves to any great error: From the Roman perspective, the "great error" for any of the Greek leaders was to make other alliances, or otherwise rebel against Rome.

invaded and besieged a part of the Aetolians: This part of the passage may be somewhat difficult to follow. General Glabrio (called Manius here) was determined to crush the cities of the Aetolian League as punishment for their stubborn resistance. Titus' reasoning against this heavy-handedness was partly on the grounds of the friendship he had established with the Greeks; but he also appealed to the illogic of Glabrio's letting Philip run rampant while spending his resources punishing a few small Greek holdouts.

suffer Philip to bear away the prize and profit of the war: see the special note above

supplicated and entreated him: begged him for help

People

Manius Acilius: Manius Acilius Glabrio, often called Glabrio

Historic Occasions

192 B.C.: Antiochus III invaded Greece, and was named commander-in-chief of the Aetolian League

192 B.C.: As the Achaeans were distracted by Antiochus, Nabis used the opportunity to recapture Gythium and fight the Achaeans at sea; but his army was defeated afterwards

192 B.C.: Nabis asked the Aetolian League for help defending Sparta against Rome and the Achaeans; they did send assistance, but those troops killed Nabis and tried to take Sparta themselves. Achaean troops, led by Philopoemen, were sent to defend Sparta, and Sparta was "persuaded" to join the Achaean League.

191-189 B.C.: The Aetolian War, between the Romans (plus Macedonian allies) vs. the Aetolian League (and their allies)

191 B.C.: Antiochus attempted to "liberate" Greece; Roman troops and their allies defeated him at the Battle of Thermopylae.

191 B.C.: Heraclea was besieged by Roman troops

191 B.C.: The Aetolians defended the port of Naupactus against the Romans

On the Map

Dolopia (Dolopes): a mountainous region north of Aetolia, in the southwestern corner of Thessaly

Magnesia (Magnetes): the region of Thessaly occupied by the tribe called the Magnetes

Heraclea (Heracleots): also called Heraclea in Trachis, near Thermopylae and the River Asopus; an important town for the Aetolian League

Naupactus: a town which controlled access to the Gulf of Corinth, and which was considered to belong to Aetolia

Reading

Note: This is a short reading; you may wish to use the extra lesson time to work on "creative narrations."

Shortly after, Antiochus entered Greece with a numerous fleet and a powerful army, soliciting the cities there to sedition and revolt. He was abetted in all and seconded by the Aetolians, who for this long time had borne a grudge and secret enmity to the Romans, and now suggested to him, by way of a cause and pretext of war, that he came "to bring the Greeks liberty." When, indeed, they never wanted it less, as they were "free" already; but, because they had no just cause to make war, they taught him to cloak it in the most honest way he could.

Wherefore the Romans fearing greatly the rising of the people, and the rumour of the power of this great king, they sent thither the consul Manius Acilius to take the charge of the war, and Titus as his lieutenant, out of regard to the Greeks, some of whom he no sooner saw, but he confirmed them in the Roman interests; others, who began to falter, he "treated," like a timely physician: by the use of the strong remedy of their own affection for himself, he was able to arrest in the first stage of the "disease," before they had committed themselves to any great error.

Indeed there were some (but few of them) that left him, which were won and corrupted before by the Aetolians; and though he had just cause of offence towards them, yet he saved them after the battle. For King Antiochus, being overcome at Thermopylae, fled his way, and in great haste took the sea to return into Asia. Manius, the consul, himself invaded and besieged a part of the Aetolians, while King Philip had permission to reduce the rest. Thus, for instance, the Dolopes and Magnetians on the one hand, and the Athamanes and Aperantians on the other, were ransacked by the Macedonians.

While Manius laid Heraclea waste, and besieged Naupactus, Titus, still with a compassionate care for Greece, sailed across from Peloponnesus, and began first of all to chide him that the victory should be owing alone to his arms, and yet he should suffer Philip to bear away the prize and profit of the war; and he himself (Manius) wreak his anger only upon a single town, whilst the Macedonians overran several nations and kingdoms. But as he happened to stand then in view of the besieged, they no sooner spied him out, but they called to him from their wall; they stretched forth their hands; they supplicated and entreated him. At the time, he said not a word more, but turning about with tears in his eyes, went his way.

Some little while after he discussed the matter so effectually with Manius, that he won him over from his passion, and prevailed with him to give a truce and time to the Aetolians to send deputies to Rome, to petition the Senate for terms of moderation.

Narration and Discussion

Titus believed that the Aetolians (that is, the Aetolian League) should be given a chance to, so to speak, apologize to Rome for their disloyalty, and to ask for "moderate" treatment rather than such cruel punishment as Glabrio had wanted to give them. Do you agree with his judgment?

Creative narration: The Battle of Thermopylae (that of 191 B.C., not 480 B.C.) is given very little space here. However, it is described more fully in Plutarch's Life of Cato the Censor and Life of Philopoemen. Using those Lives or other references, have individual students or partners retell the details.

Lesson Ten

Introduction

In this passage we have examples both of the honour shown to Titus, and of his ironic sense of humour.

Vocabulary

incensed: angered

a marriage which Antiochus had made in their city: see also the Life of Philopoemen, Lesson Ten

with zeal and alacrity: quickly and enthusiastically

gymnasium: a facility for sports training, bathing, and intellectual discussions

delphinium: a temple of Apollo (who also used the name Delphineus)

at variance: in disagreement

emulation and rivalry: jealousy, personal competition

some citizen-like freedom of speech: an honest but "gentlemanly" expression of his opinions

pleasant wise mirth: sense of humour; little jokes

parled: spoke

and did number them by many diverse names: Dryden translates this "a long catalogue of hard names."

to his board: on his table

Historic Occasions

191 B.C.: Antiochus retreated from Greece

190 B.C.: Antiochus lost Asia Minor to Rome

189-184 B.C. Titus was censor (see Lesson Eleven)

188 B.C.: Antiochus surrendered much of his remaining territory

187 B.C.: Death of Antiochus

Reading

Part One

But the most trouble and difficulty Titus had was to entreat with Manius for the Chalcidians, who had incensed him (Manius) on account of a marriage which Antiochus had made in their city, even whilst the war was on foot; a match no ways suitable in point of age, he an elderly man being enamoured with a mere girl, and as little proper for the time, in the midst of a war. She was the daughter of one Cleoptolemus, and is said to have been wonderfully beautiful. The Chalcidians, in consequence, embraced the king's interests with zeal and alacrity, and let him make their city the basis of his operations during the war. Thither, therefore, he made with all speed, when he was routed and fled; and reaching Chalcis, without making any stay, taking this young lady, and his money and friends with him, away he sailed to Asia.

For this cause the consul Manius, having won the battle, did march straight with his army towards the city of Chalcis in a great rage and fury. Titus hurried after him, endeavouring to pacify and to entreat him; and at length succeeded both with him and the chief men among the Romans.

The Chalcidians, thus owing their lives to Titus, dedicated to him all the best and most magnificent of their sacred buildings, inscriptions upon which may be seen to run thus to this day:

"The people dedicate this gymnasium to Titus and to Hercules."

So again:

"The people consecrate this delphinium to Titus and to Hercules."

And what is yet more, even in our time, a "priest of Titus" was formally elected and declared [omission for length].

Other parts of Greece also heaped honours upon him suitable to his merits, and what made all those honours true and real was the surprising goodwill and affection which his moderation and equity of character had won for him. For if he were at any time at variance with anybody in matters of business, or out of emulation and rivalry (as with Philopoemen, and again with Diophanes, when in office as general of the Achaeans), his resentment never went far, nor did it ever break out into acts; but when it had vented itself in some citizen-like freedom of speech, there was an end of it.

Part Two

Therefore none thought him ever a cruel man, or eager of revenge; but many have thought him rash, and hasty of nature. Otherwise, he was as good a companion in company as possibly could be, and would use as pleasant wise mirth as any man.

For instance, to divert the Achaeans from the conquest of the Isle of Zacynthus: "If," said he, "they put their head too far out of Peloponnesus, they may hazard themselves as much as a tortoise out of its shell."

And the first time he parled with Philip to treat of peace, Philip said unto him, "You have brought many men with you, and I am come alone." "Indeed, it is true you are alone," said Titus, "because you made all your friends and kin to be slain."

In the council of the Achaeans, King Antiochus' ambassadors being come thither, to move them to break their league with the Romans and to make alliance with the king, they made a marvellous large discourse of the great multitude of soldiers that were in their master's army, and did number them by many diverse names. Whereunto Titus answered, and told how a friend of his having bidden him one night to supper, and having served so many dishes to his board, as he was angry with him for bestowing so great cost upon him, wondering how he could so suddenly get so much store of meat, and of so diverse kinds.

"My friend said to me again, that all was but pork dressed so many ways, and with so sundry sauces. And even so (quoth Titus), my Lords of Achaea, esteem not King Antiochus' army the more, to hear of so many men of arms, numbered with their lances, and of such a number of footmen with their pikes: for they are all but Syrians, diversely armed, only with ill-favoured little weapons."

Narration and Discussion

How did the Chalcidians "owe their lives to Titus?"

Was it appropriate for Titus to sometimes "vent his resentment?" How did he keep his inclination to speak out from going too far? (Ephesians 4:26)

What did Titus mean by comparing Antiochus' forces to the same meat with different sauces?

Creative narration: You are a reporter, and your editor wants you to write an article showing the "gentle courtesy" of Titus. You can talk to anyone you want, and make as many long-distance phone calls as you like. (Do you think anyone will give you a different opinion?)

Lesson Eleven

Introduction

Titus was elected censor in 189 BC., and Marcus Cato the Elder was the next in line, giving them each a chance to act on any inclinations they might have for personal revenge. And so they did.

Vocabulary

censor: see introductory notes

cashiered: fired

tribune of the people: see introductory notes

dissolute: low in morality

flagrantly regardless of all decency: His shameful acts were committed without any regard for common moral standards.

revoked and made void: cancelled. See also Plutarch's Life of Marcus Cato the Censor, Lesson Nine.

his deserts: what he deserved

made him place: made space for him; gave him his usual seat

People

The son of Marcellus, who had been five times consul: Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the son of the famous general of the same name (see Lesson One). He was elected as censor along with Titus.

Scipio Africanus: Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, often called Scipio Africanus, or Scipio the Elder. He was a military general and statesman, known for defeating Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 B.C. He was also a longtime opponent of Cato the Elder.

Marcus Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.): Roman statesman, also called Cato the Censor or Cato the Elder. See Marcus Cato the Censor.

Historic Occasions

189 B.C.: Titus Flamininus was censor in Rome, at the age of about thirty-nine

188 B.C.: Philopoemen led Achaean troops into Spartan territory; they broke down the city walls, and imposed their own laws and culture.

184 B.C.: Cato became censor

184 B.C.: Lucius Quintius (Quinctius) Flamininus was expelled from the Senate by Cato

183 B.C.: Death of Philopoemen

Reading

After his achievements in Greece, and when the war with Antiochus was at an end, Titus was created censor: the most eminent office, and, in a manner, the highest preferment, in the commonwealth. The son of Marcellus, who had been five times consul, was his colleague. These two censors, by virtue of their office, cashiered four senators of no great distinction, and admitted to the roll of citizens all free-born residents. But this was more by constraint than their own choice; for Terentius Culeo, then tribune of the people, to spite the nobility, persuaded the people of Rome to command it so.

Now at that time, two of the noblest and most famous men of Rome were great enemies one against another: Publius Scipio Africanus, and Marcus Porcius Cato. Titus named Scipio as first member of the senate; and involved himself in a quarrel with Cato, on an unhappy occasion. Titus had a brother, Lucius Flamininus, very unlike him in all points of character, and, in particular, low and dissolute in his pleasures, and flagrantly regardless of all decency.

[The details of the misbehaviour of Lucius Quintius are omitted for extreme mature content.]

However, this is certain: Cato, when he became censor, made a severe scrutiny into the senators' lives in order to purge and reform the house; and expelled Lucius, though he had been once consul before, and though the punishment seemed to reflect dishonour on his brother also. Whereupon both the brethren came weeping with all humility before the people, and made a petition that seemed very reasonable and civil: which was that they would command Cato to come before them, to declare the cause openly why he had with such open shame defaced so noble a house as theirs was. Cato then, without delay or shrinking back, asked Titus if he knew nothing of the unspeakable event. Titus answered, he knew not of it. Then Cato opened all the whole matter as it was; and in the end of his tale, he bade Lucius Quintius swear openly, if he would deny that what he had said was true. Lucius answered not a word. Whereupon the people judged the shame was justly laid upon him: and so to honour Cato, they did accompany home from the tribunal in great state.

But Titus still so deeply resented his brother's degradation, that he allied himself with those who had long borne a grudge against Cato; and winning over a major part of the Senate, he revoked and made void all the contracts, leases, and bargains made by Cato, relating to public revenues; and also got numerous actions and accusations brought against him; carrying on against a lawful magistrate and excellent citizen (for the sake of one who was indeed his relation, but was unworthy to be so, and had but gotten his deserts) a course of bitter and violent attacks, which it would be hard to say were either right or patriotic.

Afterwards, however, at a public spectacle in the theatre, when the Senators were set according to their custom, in the most honourable places: Lucius Flamininus came in also, who in lowly and humble manner went to sit down in the furthest seats of the theater, without regard of his former honour: which when the people saw, they took pity of him, and could not abide to see him thus dishonoured. So they cried out to have him come and sit among the other Senators and consuls, who made him place, and received him accordingly.

Narration and Discussion

Plutarch accuses Titus of carrying out "a course of bitter and violent attacks, which it would be hard to say were either right or patriotic." Do you agree? Should Cato be accused of the same thing?

For further thought: How far should we go to defend a relative or friend, if they have done wrong and deserve punishment? Two Bible passages to think about: David's reaction to the death of his traitorous son Absalom; and Abraham's intercession for his nephew Lot.

Lesson Twelve and Examination Questions

Introduction

In one of his last known acts, Titus travelled to Bithynia on state business. Rome's old enemy Hannibal happened to be living there as well, and somehow (it's not quite clear) this visit coincided with Hannibal's decision to make away with himself. Did he commit suicide out of fear of Titus? Was it an assassination instead? The jury is still out on this case.

Plutarch's description of Titus in Lesson Twelve makes him sound quite elderly; but, according to the record of former events, he would have been only in his forties. Nothing is heard of Titus after this time, except for a mention (by the historian Livy) of his funeral about ten years later. There was an epidemic in Rome in the year of his death; but it seems more likely, given his disappearance from the histories for almost ten years, that he may have retired and died due to poor health.

Vocabulary

we have given a relation of: we have told about

expiration: end

to be carried away with the passion for reputation, as uncontrollably as any youth: Plutarch, perhaps uncharacteristically, seems to be taking sides here to the extent of possibly adjusting the facts of the case.

Titus was not to be entreated: This sounds like Titus carried out a death warrant against Hannibal, but there is little evidence for it.

faint heart: fickleness towards him

privy caves and vaults: secret tunnels

all the vents out, had watch and ward upon them: all the ways out (that no-one was supposed to know about) were being guarded

clemency: forgiveness

he parled with him of peace: he had peace talks with him

was no less generally found fault with: It may or may not be accurate to say that Titus was out of favour; we just don't know.

innate malice and rancour: great hatred

temper and bent of the soul: character; personality

People

Hannibal: the defeated general of Carthage

King Prusias: Prusias I of Bithynia

Historic Occasions

c.183-181 B.C.: Death of Hannibal (exact date is unknown)

179 B.C.: Death of Philip V

c. 174 B.C.: Death of Titus Flamininus, at about the age of 54

On the Map

Bithynia: a kingdom (and later a Roman province) in Asia Minor

Pergamon (or Pergamum): a Greek city in Mysia

Reading

Part One

This natural ambition of Titus was well enough looked on by the world whilst the wars we have given a relation of afforded competent fuel to feed it; as, for instance, when, after the expiration of his consulship, he had a command as military tribune, which nobody pressed upon him. But being now out of all employ in the government, and advanced in years, he showed his defects more plainly: allowing himself in this inactive remainder of life to be carried away with the passion for reputation, as uncontrollably as any youth.

Some such transport, it is thought, betrayed him into a proceeding against Hannibal, which lost him the regard of many. For Hannibal, having fled his country, first took sanctuary with Antiochus; but he, having been glad to obtain a peace after the battle in Phrygia, Hannibal was put to shift for himself, by a second flight; and, after wandering through many countries, fixed at length in Bithynia, proffering his service to King Prusias. Everyone at Rome knew where he was, but looked upon him now, in his weakness and old age, with no sort of apprehension, as one whom fortune had quite cast off.

Titus, however, coming thither as ambassador, though he was sent from the Senate to Prusias upon another errand; yet seeing Hannibal resident there, it stirred up resentment in him to find that he was yet alive. And though Prusias used much intercession and entreaties in favour of him, as his suppliant and familiar friend, Titus was not to be entreated [omission].

Part Two

There is a certain sandy country in Bithynia near to the seaside, where there is a little village called Libyssa, and where Hannibal remained continually. He, mistrusting King Prusias' faint heart, and fearing the Romans' malice also, had made seven privy caves and vaults underground long before, that he might secretly go out at either of them which way he would, and every one of them came to the main vault where himself did lie, and could not be discerned outwardly. When it was told him that Titus had willed Prusias to deliver him into his hands, he sought then to save himself by those means: but he found that all the vents out had watch and ward upon them by the king's commandment. So then he determined to kill himself.

[omission for length: Hannibal's suicide by poison]

The news whereof being come to Rome unto the Senate, many of them thought Titus too violent and cruel, to have made Hannibal kill himself in that sort, when extremity of age had overcome him already, and was as a bird left naked, her feathers falling from her for age: and so much the more, because there was no instant occasion offered him to urge him to do it, but a covetous mind of honour, for that he would be chronicled to be the cause and author of Hannibal's death.

And then in contrariwise they did much honour and commend the clemency and noble mind of Scipio Africanus. Who, having overcome Hannibal in battle in Africa himself, being then indeed to be feared, and having never been overcome before: yet he did not cause him to be driven out of his country, neither did ask him of the Carthaginians, but both then, and before the battle, when he parled with him of peace, he took Hannibal courteously by the hand, and after the battle, in the conditions of peace he gave them, he never spoke a word of hurt to Hannibal's person, neither did he shew any cruelty to him in his misery [omission].

Such conduct was much admired in Scipio; and that of Titus, who had, as it were, insulted the dead whom another had slain, was no less generally found fault with. Not but that there were some who applauded the action, looking upon a living Hannibal as a fire, which only wanted blowing to become a flame. For when he was in the prime and flower of his age, it was not his body nor his hand that had been so formidable, but his consummate skill and experience, together with his innate malice and rancour against the Roman name, things which do not impair with age. For the temper and bent of the soul remains constant, while Fortune continually varies; and some new hope might easily rouse to a fresh attempt those whose hatred made them enemies to the last.

[omission]

Epilogue

We find no further mention in history of anything done by Titus, either in war or in the administration of the government, but simply that he died in peace.

Narration and Discussion

Did Titus go to Bithynia to get rid of Hannibal? Historians have argued that Titus' business with Prusias was on a quite different matter, and even Plutarch admits that Titus was already aware that Hannibal was living under the guard of Prusias ("Everyone at Rome knew where he was"); so it seems unlikely that Titus was surprised, or that his arrival had much to do with Hannibal's decision to commit suicide. However, Plutarch seems determined to suggest that it was not suicide at all, or at least that Titus' appearance in the city made Hannibal assume that his life was in danger. He portrays Hannibal as a tired old dog without any teeth, although he also mentions (in an omitted passage) other "old dogs" who showed that they could still be dangerous, suggesting that getting rid of Hannibal could have been a wise decision, though somewhat unmerciful. Based on the evidence, what do you think might have happened?

For older students and further thought: Plutarch said of Titus that "being ever thirsty after honour, and passionate for glory, if anything of a greater and more extraordinary nature were to be done, he was eager to be the doer of it himself" (Lesson One). Would Charlotte Mason have said that Titus was one who acted with Will (with a clear object outside of himself, and being able to put his own desires aside for that goal), or Willfully (acting essentially in his own interest, and enslaved to his desires)?

Examination Questions

Younger Students:

1. "Crows that were accidentally flying over the course fell down dead into it." How does this show the power of human voices? Tell the whole story.

2. Give an instance to show how the gentle courtesy of Titus won him many friends.

Older Students:

1. Describe the campaign of Titus in Epirus, showing how he made the Greeks willing to submit to him.

2. (High school) Open Book Exam: Go back through this Life, and choose two or three quotes that describe the best of Titus Quintius Flamininus. Be prepared to explain why you chose the ones you did.

AmblesideOnline Plutarch Readings:

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