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Study Guide for Plutarch's Life of Alexander

Text taken from Thomas North and/or John Dryden
Study Guide by Anne White

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Alexander III of Macedon

(356-323 B.C.)

Part II, continued from Part I.

Lesson Thirteen

Introduction

If you are returning to the Life of Alexander after a break, take a few minutes to review the previous term's work, especially the victory at Gaugamela, where King Darius of Persia was defeated but escaped from the Macedonians. Remember, however, that it is more important to gain an understanding of Alexander's character than it is to recall every historical detail.

As we begin the second half of this Life, "the kingdom of the Persians was utterly overthrown," but the Macedonian army had not yet entered central Persia or captured Darius. Lesson Thirteen opens with a battle at the Persian Gates (a mountain pass leading into the central part of the country).

Vocabulary

by a way something about…: by a somewhat roundabout way, but not covering too great a distance

sometime: in past times

munificent: generous

destitute: poor

effaces: erases, wipes out

People

Xerxes: a great Persian king

Demaratus the Corinthian: It seems likely that this is the same Demaratus who fought with Timoleon in Sicily (Life of Timoleon).

Ariobarzanes: His name does not appear in Plutarch's text, but he was satrap (governor) of the southern part of the Persian empire, and he commanded troops at the Battle of Gaugamela. He also headed the Persian defense at the Persian Gates, but he was killed either there or soon afterwards at Persepolis.

Thaïs: a romantic companion of Ptolemy, and possibly also of Alexander

Ptolemy I Soter: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

330 B.C.: Battle of the Persian Gates

Reading

Part One

The entrance into Persia was through a most difficult country, and was guarded by the noblest [soldiers] of the Persians, Darius himself having escaped further. Alexander, however, chanced to find a guide in exact correspondence with what the Pythia had foretold when he was a child, that a lycos [wolf] should conduct him into Persia. For by such a one, whose father was a Lycian, and his mother a Persian, and who spoke both languages, he was now led into the country, by a way something about, yet without fetching any considerable compass.

Here a great many of the prisoners were put to the sword, of which Alexander himself gives this account, that he commanded them to be killed in the belief that it would be for his advantage. Nor was the money found here less, he says, than at Susa, besides other movables and treasure, as much as ten thousand pair of mules and five thousand camels could well carry away.

Amongst other things, he happened to observe a large statue of Xerxes thrown carelessly down to the ground in the confusion made by the multitude of soldiers pressing into the palace. Thereupon he stayed, and spoke unto it as if it had been alive, saying: "I cannot tell whether I should pass by thee, and let thee lie, for the war thou madest sometime against the Grecians; or whether I should lift thee up, respecting the noble mind and virtues thou hadst." In the end, when he had stood mute a long time, considering of it, he went his way: and, meaning to refresh his weary army, because it was the winter quarter, he remained there four months together.

The report goeth that the first time that Alexander sat under the canopy of King Darius, all of rich gold: Demaratus the Corinthian, who was much attached to him and had been one of his father's friends, burst out in tears for joy, good old man, saying that the Grecians long time dead before were deprived of this blessed hap, to see Alexander set in King Xerxes' princely chair.

Part Two

After that, preparing again to go against Darius, he would needs make merry one day, and refresh himself with some banquet. It chanced so, that he with his companions was bidden to a private feast, where [there were assembled his followers and some women]. Amongst them was that famous Thaïs, born in the country of Attica, and then mistress of Ptolemy, who was afterwards king of Egypt.

[As the feasting and drinking went on, Thaïs made the suggestion, half-serious, half-joking, that they should burn down Xerxes' palace to avenge his burning of the Temple of Athena in 480 B.C.]

What she said was received with such universal liking and murmurs of applause, and so seconded by the encouragement and eagerness of the company, that the king himself, persuaded to be of the party, started from his seat, and with a chaplet of flowers on his head and a torch in his hand, led them the way, while they went after him in a riotous manner, dancing and making loud cries about the place. When the rest of the Macedonians perceived it, they also in great delight ran thither with torches; for they hoped the burning and destruction of the royal palace was an argument that [Alexander] looked homeward, and had no design to reside among the barbarians. Thus some writers give their account of this action, while others say it was done deliberately; however, all agree that he soon repented of it, and commanded the fire to be quenched straight.

Part Three

Alexander was naturally most munificent, and grew more so as his fortune increased, accompanying what he gave with that courtesy and freedom which, to speak truth, is necessary to make a benefit really obliging.

[one example omitted for length]

[He once] met with a poor Macedonian that led a mule laden with gold of the kings: and when the poor mule was so weary that she could no longer carry her burden, the muleteer put [the burden] upon his own back, and loaded himself withal, carrying it so a good pretty way; howbeit in the end being overladen, he was about to throw it down on the ground. Alexander perceiving it, asked him what burden he carried. When it was told him: "Well," quoth he to the muleteer, "be not weary yet, but carry it into your own tent, for I give it thee." To be short, he was angrier with them that would take nothing of him, than he was with those that would ask him for something.

[omission: mature content]

The goods and riches he gave unto his familiars and guard about him were very great, as it appeareth plainly by a letter which his mother Olympias wrote unto him, to this effect: "I know thou sparest not to give thy friends large gifts, and that thou makest much of them: but thereby thou makest them king's fellows; they get many friends, and in the meantime you leave yourself destitute."

[further omissions]

To his mother he sent many presents but would never suffer her to meddle with matters of state or war, not indulge her busy temper, and when she fell out with him on this account, he bore her ill humour very patiently. Nay, more, when he read a long letter from Antipater full of accusations against her, "Antipater," he said, "does not know that one tear of a mother effaces a thousand such letters as these."

Narration and Discussion

How did Alexander's army finally get through the Persian Gates?

Was Alexander truly generous, or did he have other reasons for giving lavishly to others?

For older students: Is an action such as the slaughter of the prisoners ever justified? What does this decision show about Alexander?

Creative narration #1: As a reporter, try to get the full story about the burning of Xerxes' palace.

Creative narration #2 (for older students): If Shakespeare had written the scene where Alexander found the toppled statue of Xerxes, how might he have turned his thoughts into a monologue?

Lesson Fourteen

Introduction

This lesson continues the previous discussion of Alexander's generosity, showing examples now of the concern he showed for his friends when they were in trouble, and his scorn for those who chose pampering and luxury over courage and action. But his new status as King of Asia made things more complicated.

Vocabulary

favourites: close friends

travail: labour, work hard

vile: worthless or of little value; detestable

for slothful curiosity's sake: from squeamishness

the type: the ideal, the model

hardness: toughness, discipline

ichneumon: possibly a mythical beast known as the "enemy of the dragon"; it can also mean a mongoose or otter

hellebore: a genus of plants, often used as medicine in the ancient world, but known to be somewhat toxic

flight: escape

stayed and taken: captured

bondman: slave

Historic Occasions

324-323 B.C.: Harpalus' escape

Reading

Part One

But when Alexander perceived his favourites grew so luxurious and extravagant in their way of living and expenses that Hagnon the Teian wore silver nails in his shoes; that Leonnatus employed several camels only to bring him powder out of Egypt to use when he wrestled; and that Philotas had hunting nets a hundred furlongs in length; that more used precious ointment than plain oil when they went to bathe; and that they carried about servants everywhere with them to rub them and wait upon them in their chambers: he wisely and courteously rebuked them.

"I marvel," said he, "that you, which have fought in so often and great battles, do not remember that they which travail do sleep more sweetly and soundly than they that take their ease and do nothing; and that you do not mark that, comparing your life with the manner of the life of the Persians, to live at pleasure is a vile thing, and to travail is princely. And how I pray you, can a man take pain to dress his own horse, or to make clean his lance or helmet, that for slothful curiosity's sake disdaineth to rub his own body with his fine fingers? Are you ignorant that the type of honour in all our victory consisteth in scorning to do that which we see them do whom we have vanquished and overcome?"

To bring them therefore by his example to acquaint themselves with hardness, he took more pains in wars and in hunting, and did hazard himself more dangerously, than ever he had done before.

[short omission]

This notwithstanding, his friends and familiars having wealth at will, as men exceeding rich, they would needs live delicately and at ease, and would take no more pains, misliking utterly to go up and down the countries to make war here and there; and thereupon [they] began a little to find fault with Alexander, and to speak evil of him. Which at the first Alexander took quietly, saying, that it was honour for a king to suffer himself to be slandered and ill-spoken of, for doing good.

Part Two

And yet the least good turns he did unto his friends did show his hearty love and honour he bare them, as shall appear unto you by some examples that follow. Peucestas, being bitten by a bear, did let his friends understand it by letters, but he wrote nothing thereof unto Alexander. Alexander was offended therewith and wrote unto him thus: "Send me word at the least how thou doest, and whether any of thy fellows did forsake thee at the hunting, to the end they may be punished." Hephaestion being absent about certain business he had, Alexander wrote unto him, that as they were hunting a beast called ichneumon, Craterus unfortunately crossing Perdiccas' javelin, was stricken through both his thighs. And upon Peucestas's recovery from a fit of sickness, he sent a letter of thanks to his physician Alexippus.

Craterus also being sick, he dreamed of him one night, and therefore made certain sacrifices for the recovery of his health, and sent unto him, willing him to do the like. And when the physician Pausanias meant to give him [Craterus] a drink of hellebore, he wrote letters unto him, telling him what danger he was in, and prayed him to be careful how he received that medicine.

He was so tender of his friends' reputations that he imprisoned those who brought him the first news of Harpalus' flight and withdrawal from his service, as if they had falsely accused him.

[omission]

It is a wonderful thing to see what pains he would take, to write for his friends, even in such trifles as he did. As when he wrote into Cilicia for a servant of Seleucus that was fled from his master, sending straight commandment that they should carefully lay for him. And by another letter he commendeth Peucestas, for that he had stayed and taken one Nicon, a slave of Craterus. And by one other letter also unto Megabizus, touching another bondman that had taken sanctuary in a temple: he commanded him also to seek to entice him out of the sanctuary, to lay hold on him if he could, but otherwise not to meddle with him in any case.

It is said also, that at the first when he used to sit in judgment to hear criminal causes, whilst the accuser went on with his complaint and accusation: he always used to lay his hand upon one of his ears while the accuser spoke, to keep it free and unprejudiced in behalf of the party accused. But afterwards, the number of accusations that were brought before him did so provoke and alter him that he did believe the false accusations, by the great number of the true that were brought in. But nothing put him more in rage than when he understood they had spoken ill of him: and then he was so fierce as no pardon would be granted, for that he loved his honour more than his kingdom or life.

Narration and Discussion

"To live at pleasure is a vile thing, and to travail is princely." Some people think quite the opposite. What did Alexander mean?

How did Alexander show that he cared for his friends? (This is a bit tricky, because one of the ways Plutarch says he showed friendship was by returning escaped slaves. Christian students might compare this with the story of Onesimus, in St. Paul's letter to Philemon.)

For older students and further thought: Charlotte Mason said that those who act with Will are those who have a purpose outside of themselves, but that those who act with Willfulness are bound by their appetites (we might say they need immediate gratification). How did Alexander's impatience with those who lived "delicately and at ease" illustrate this principle?

Creative narration: Dramatize one of the scenes from this lesson, such as Alexander's discovery of his friends' taste for luxurious living.

Lesson Fifteen

Introduction

This lesson is all about water! The Macedonians nearly perished from thirst on a long march; the last moments of King Darius' life were eased by a drink of water offered by an enemy; and Alexander reached the Caspian Sea.

Vocabulary

he went against Darius: the goal was to overtake the enemy camp

thirty-three hundred furlongs: about 412 miles (about 664 km)

in manner: practically

flying away at all adventure: running for their lives

they ran upon the spur: they rushed

almost at the last cast: almost dead

I cannot requite thee: I cannot pay you back

gave up the ghost: died

all the flower of his army: his best soldiers

People

Bessus: a Persian satrap (a high official) and military commander who conspired to capture and overthrow Darius after the Battle of Gaugamela. It appears that the conspirators intended to hand him over to Alexander; but when the Macedonians appeared at the Persian camp, they panicked, stabbed Darius, and then fled. Bessus, who was a cousin of Darius and was next in line to the throne, called himself King Artaxerxes V after the death of Darius; but he was soon captured and executed by Alexander.

Polystratus: a Macedonian soldier

Historic Occasions

330 B.C.: Death of Darius

329 B.C.: Death of Bessus

On the Map

In Part One, Alexander followed Darius into the desert area of Rhagae (east of modern-day Tehran). In Part Two, the Macedonians travelled to the region of Hyrcania, near the Caspian Sea (the sea Caspium).

Euxine: the Black Sea

Lake of Maeotis: the Sea of Azov, sometimes regarded as an extension of the Black Sea

Reading

Part One

Then at that time he went against Darius, thinking that he meant to fight again; but, understanding that Bessus had taken him, he then gave the Thessalians leave to depart home into their country, and gave them two thousand talents over and above their ordinary pay. In this long and painful pursuit of Darius, for eleven days he marched thirty-three hundred furlongs, (and it) harassed his soldiers so that most of them were ready to give it up, chiefly for want of water.

It chanced him one day to meet with certain Macedonians that carried (upon mules) goatskins full of water, which they had fetched from a river. They, seeing Alexander in manner dead for thirst, it being about noon, ran quickly to him and in a helmet brought him water. Alexander asked them to whom they carried this water. They answered him again that they carried it to their children, and said, "but yet we would have Your Grace to live: for though we lose them, we may get more children."

When they had said so, Alexander took the helmet with water, and perceiving that men of arms that were about him and had followed him did thrust out their necks to look upon this water, he gave the water back again unto them that had given it him, and thanked them, but drank none of it. "For," said he, "if I drink alone, all these men here will faint." Then they, seeing the noble courage and courtesy of Alexander, cried out that he should lead them: and therewithal began to spur their horses, saying that they were not weary nor athirst, nor did think themselves mortal, so long as they had such a king.

Every man was alike willing to follow Alexander; yet had he but [sixty] only that entered with him into the enemies' camp. There, passing over much gold and silver which was scattered abroad in the marketplace, and going also by many chariots full of women and children, which they found in the fields, flying away at all adventure: they ran upon the spur until they had overtaken the foremost that fled, thinking to have found Darius amongst them. But at the length, with much ado, they found him laid along in a coach, having many wounds upon his body, some of darts and some of spears. So he, being almost at the last cast, called for some drink, and drank cold water which Polystratus gave him. To whom when he had drunk, he said:

"This is my last mishap, my friend, that having received this pleasure, I cannot requite thee: howbeit Alexander will recompense thee, and the gods will recompense Alexander for the liberality and courtesy which he hath shewed unto my wife and children, whom I pray thee embrace for my sake."

At these last words, he took Polystratus by the hand, and so gave up the ghost. Alexander came immediately after, and plainly showed that he was sorry for his death and misfortune; and undoing his own cloak, he cast it upon the body of Darius.

[omission: the cruel execution of Bessus]

Then Alexander having [laid Darius' corpse in state], he sent it unto his mother, and received his brother Exathres for one of his friends.

Part Two

And now with the flower of his army he marched into Hyrcania, where he saw a large bay of an open sea, apparently not much less than the Euxine, with water, however, sweeter than that of other seas, but could learn nothing of certainty concerning it, further than that in all probability it seemed to him to be an arm issuing from the lake of Maeotis. However, the naturalists were better informed of the truth, and had given an account of it many years before Alexander's expedition; that of four gulfs which out of the main sea enter into the continent, this, known [variously] as the Caspian and as the Hyrcanian Sea, is the most northern.

Here the barbarians, unexpectedly meeting with those who led Bucephalus, took them prisoners, and carried the horse away with them, at which Alexander was so much vexed that he sent an herald to let them know he would put them all to the sword, men, women, and children, without mercy, if they did not restore him. But on their doing so, and at the same time surrendering their cities into his hands, he not only treated them kindly, but also paid a ransom for his horse to those who took him.

Narration and Discussion

"For," said he, "if I drink alone, all these men here will faint." How did Alexander show true leadership in this situation?

Who showed the most compassion for others in this lesson?

For older students: In one sense, the conspirators had done Alexander a favour by capturing and killing Darius; and with Alexander's growing power, even Bessus might not have posed much of a threat as king of what was left of Persia, or he might have easily been conquered in battle. Discuss why it was (or was not) necessary to punish the conspirators so severely. (This could be debated in a group, or written as an editorial.)

Creative narration: Write or dramatize Alexander's reaction to the death of Darius.

Lesson Sixteen

Introduction

Scholars have debated the details of what Alexander wore as King of Asia. What did each piece of clothing symbolize to the Persians, to the Macedonians, and to Alexander himself? He did not want to be viewed as merely following Darius, so he deliberately left off the tiara or headdress associated with Persian kings. Median-style loose trousers made the Macedonians think of theatrical costumes, and were also sometimes worn by women, so Alexander avoided those. He did, however, incorporate a regal tunic; a Persian-style belt, which symbolized power; and a diadem crown into his wardrobe.

Vocabulary

apparel himself…: dress in the Persian style

Medes: the people of Media, a kingdom which had been conquered by the Persians. Plutarch refers here to the Median style of riding dress.

sleeved vest: loose jacket

tiara: a type of headdress associated with Persian royalty

Persian mode and the Macedonian: Plutarch's Greek text has "Median" instead of "Macedonian," and North also says "Medes," but later translators agreed that "Macedonian" made more sense.

take his own pleasure: do as he pleased

chaste and continent: well-behaved, self-controlled

People

Roxane: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

329 B.C.: Alexander reached the Tanais/Jaxartes River

327 B.C.: Alexander married Roxane

On the Map

Parthia: a region (now part of Iran) which had belonged to the Persian Empire

river Jaxartes (Tanais): now called the Syr Darya River, in Central Asia

Reading

Part One

Departing thence, he entered into the country of Parthia, where, not having much to do, he began to apparel himself after the fashion of the barbarous people, because he thought thereby the better to win the hearts of the countrymen, framing himself unto their own fashions: or else to try the hearts of the Macedonians, to see how they would like the manner of the Persians (which he meant to bring them unto) in reverencing of him as they [the Persians] did their king, by little and little acquainting them to allow the alteration and change of his life.

This notwithstanding, he would not at the first take up the apparel of the Medes, which was very strange and altogether barbarous. He adopted neither the trousers nor the sleeved vest, nor the tiara for the head, but taking a middle way between the Persian mode and the Macedonian, so contrived his habit that it was not so flaunting as the one, and yet more pompous and magnificent than the other. At the first he did not wear it but when he would talk with the barbarous people, or else privately amongst his friends and familiars. Afterwards, notwithstanding, he showed himself openly to the people in that apparel when he gave them audience. This sight grieved the Macedonians much: but they had his virtues in such admiration, that they thought it meet in some things he should take his own pleasure, since he had been often hurt in the wars, and not long before had his leg broken with an arrow, and another time, had such a blow with a stone full in his neck which dimmed his sight for a good while afterwards. And yet all this could not hinder him from exposing himself freely to any dangers, insomuch that he passed the river Jaxartes, which he took to be the Tanais; and putting the Scythians to flight, followed them above a hundred furlongs, [though he was not well].

[omission for length]

Furthermore, Alexander, fearing that the Macedonians being weary with this long war, would go no further; he left all the rest of his army behind, and took only twenty thousand footmen and three thousand horsemen of the choicest men of his army, and with them invaded the country of Hyrcania. There he made an oration unto these soldiers; and told them that the barbarous people of Asia had but seen them as it were in a dream, and if they should now return back into Macedon, having but only stirred them, and not altogether subdued Asia: the people, offended with them, would set upon them as they went home [short omission].

Nevertheless, he gave any man leave to return that would, merely protesting therewith against them that would go, how they did forsake him, his friends, and those who had so good hearts towards him, as to follow him in so noble a journey, to conquer the whole earth for the Macedonians. This matter is reported thus in a letter which Alexander wrote unto Antipater: and there he writeth furthermore, that having made this oration unto them, they all cried out, and bade him lead them into what part of the world he would. When they had granted their good wills, it was no hard matter afterwards, to win the rest of the common sort of soldiers who followed the example of the chiefest.

Thereupon he did frame himself the more to live after the fashion of the country there, and also to bring the men of that country unto the manner of the Macedonians: being persuaded, that by this mixture and interchange of manners one with another, he should by friendship, more than force, make them agree lovingly together, when the time came that he should be so far from the country of Persia. For this purpose, therefore, he chose thirty thousand of their children of that country, and set them to learn the Greek tongue, and to be brought up in the discipline of wars, after the Macedonian manner: and gave them schoolmasters and captains to train them in each faculty.

Part Two

And for the marrying of Roxane: he fancied her, seeing her at a feast where he was; which fell out as well for his turn, as if he had with better advice and counsel loved her. For the barbarous people were very proud of this match when they saw him make alliance with them in this sort, insomuch as they loved him better than they did before, because they saw in those things he was always so chaste and continent, that, notwithstanding, he was marvellously in love with her; yet he would not dishonourably touch this young lady before he was married unto her.

Noticing, also, that among his chief friends and favourites, Hephaestion most approved of all he did and complied with and imitated him in his change of habits; while Craterus continued strict in the observation of the customs and fashions of his own country; he made it his practice to employ the first in all transactions with the Persians, and the latter when he had to do with the Greeks or Macedonians. In general he showed more affection for Hephaestion, [but] more respect for Craterus; Hephaestion, as he used to say, being Alexander's, and Craterus the king's friend.

Hereupon these two persons bore one another a grudge in their hearts, and oftentimes broke out in open quarrel: insomuch as on a time being in India, they drew their swords and fought together, and divers of their friends ran to take part with either side. Thither came Alexander himself also, who openly before them all, bitterly took up Hephaestion, and called him fool and madman [short omission].

Privately also, he sharply rebuked Craterus, and calling them both before him, he made them friends together, swearing by Jupiter Ammon, and by all the other gods, that he loved them two of all men living, nevertheless if ever he found that they fell out together again, they should both die for it, or him at the least that first began to quarrel. So ever after that, they say, there was never foul word nor deed between them, not so much as in sport only.

[Omission for mature content]

Narration and Discussion

One reason Alexander changed his dress was "to see how [his people] would like the manner of the Persians (which he meant to bring them unto) in reverencing of him as they did their king, by little and little acquainting them to allow the alteration and change of his life." Have you ever had to begin wearing a different sort of clothes, in a new place or for a new activity? Did it make you feel like a different person? (Did other people treat you differently?)

How did Alexander stem the quarrel between his best friends?

Creative narration: Alexander's re-creation of himself as a Persian king (with modifications) might lend itself to some drama, such as a scene with his tailor.

Lesson Seventeen

Introduction

There is a lengthy omission between Lessons Sixteen and Seventeen, involving intrigue and misconduct in Alexander's court. It includes the execution of Philotas, the son of Parmenion; and then of Parmenion himself, an old friend who had served under King Philip. This lesson builds on the climate of fear and mistrust sparked by those events. It describes the murder of Cleitus, an act that would haunt Alexander for the rest of his life (see Lesson Three).

Vocabulary

Castor and Pollux: immortal brothers believed to be the patrons of travellers and sailors (giving them fair winds)

Spithridates' sword: referring to the Battle of Granicus (Lesson Four)

"Do you not think," said he…: Alexander's reason for saying this is not clear; but it may have been the fact that Alexander did not respond directly to his accusations which further enraged Cleitus.

Persian girdle and long white garment: belt and tunic, described in Lesson Sixteen

partisan: spear

prognostication: prediction

near friend of Aristotle: possibly the great-nephew of Aristotle

despising and slighting: thinking little of

censure and reproach: criticism, condemnation

audacious: bold

insinuate himself: inch or "worm" himself

austerity: stern manner

People

Cleitus (or Clitus): "Cleitus the Black" had saved Alexander's life at the Battle of the Granicus.

Callisthenes: a Greek historian, and a close friend or relative of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexander on his journey.

Anaxarchus: a philosopher

Historic Occasions

328 B.C.: Death of Cleitus

Reading

Part One

Not long after that followed the murder of Cleitus, the which to hear it simply told, would seem much more cruel than the death of Philotas. But reporting the cause and the time together in which it chanced, it will be found that it was not of set purpose, but by chance, and unfortunately, that Alexander being overcome with wine, [he] did unluckily wreak his anger upon Cleitus.

The manner of his misfortune was this: there came certain men of the low countries from the seaside, that brought apples of Greece [Dryden: Grecian fruit] unto Alexander. Alexander wondering to see them so green and fair, sent for Cleitus to show him them, and to give him some of them. Cleitus by chance did sacrifice at that time unto the gods, and left his sacrifice to go unto Alexander: howbeit there were three sheep that followed him, on whom the accustomed sprinklings had been done already to have sacrificed them. Alexander understanding that, told it to his soothsayers, Aristander and Cleomantis the Lacedaemonian, who both did answer him that it was [a bad omen]. Alexander thereupon gave order straight that they should do sacrifice for the health of Cleitus, and specially for that three days before he dreamed one night that he saw Cleitus in a mourning gown, sitting amongst the sons of Parmenion, the which were all dead before.

This notwithstanding, Cleitus did not make an end of his sacrifice, but came straight to supper to the king, who had that day sacrificed unto Castor and Pollux. And when they had drunk pretty hard, some of the company fell a-singing the verses of one Pranichus, or as others say, of Pierion, against certain captains of the Macedonians, which had not long before been overcome by the barbarous people, and only to shame them and to make the company laugh.

With these verses, ancient men that were at this feast became much offended, and grew angry with the poet that made them, and the minstrel that sang them. Alexander, on the other side, and his familiars, liked them very well, and commanded the minstrel to sing still. Cleitus, therewith, all being overtaken with wine, and besides of a churlish nature, proud and arrogant, fell into greater choler, and said that it was neither well nor honestly done in that sort to speak ill of those poor Macedonian captains (and specially amongst the barbarous people their enemies), which were far better men than they that laughed them to scorn, although their fortune was much worse than theirs. Alexander then replied, and said that, saying so, he [Cleitus] pleaded for himself, calling cowardliness "misfortune."

Then Cleitus standing up, said again:

"But yet this my ‘cowardliness' saved thy life, that callest thyself the son of the gods, when thou turnedst thy back from Spithridates' sword; and the blood which these poor Macedonians did shed for thee, and the wounds which they received of their bodies fighting for thee, have made thee so great, that thou disdainest now to have King Philip for thy father, and wilt needs make thyself the son of Jupiter Ammon."

Alexander being moved with these words, straight replied: "O villain, thinkest thou to escape unpunished for these proud words of thine, which thou usest continually against me, making the Macedonians rebel against Alexander?"

Cleitus answered again, "Too much are we punished, Alexander, for our pains and service to receive such reward: nay, most happy think we them that long since are dead and gone, not now to see the Macedonians scourged with rods of the Medes and compelled to curry favour with the Persians to have access unto the king."

Thus, Cleitus boldly speaking against Alexander, and Alexander again answering and reviling him: the gravest men sought to pacify this stir and tumult. Alexander then turning himself unto Xenodochus the Cardian and Artemius the Colophonian: "Do you not think," said he, "that the Grecians are, amongst the Macedonians, as demi-gods that walk among brute beasts?"

Cleitus for all this would not give over, but cried out, and bade Alexander speak openly what he had to say, or else not to bid free men come to sup with him that were wont to speak frankly: if not, to keep with the barbarous slaves that honoured his Persian girdle and his white tunic.

Which words so provoked Alexander that, not able to suppress his anger any longer, he threw one of the apples that lay upon the table at him, and hit him, and then looked about for his sword. But Aristophanes, one of his life-guard, had hid that out of the way. And when every man came straight about him to stay him, and to pray him to be contented: he immediately rose from the board and called his guard unto him in the Macedonian tongue (which was a sign of great trouble to follow after it) and commanded a trumpeter to sound the alarm. But he, drawing back, would not sound: whereupon Alexander struck him with his fist. Notwithstanding, the trumpeter was greatly commended afterwards for disobeying an order which would have put the whole army into tumult and confusion.

All this could not quiet Cleitus, whereupon his friends with much ado thrust him out of the hall: but he came in again at another door, very irreverently and confidently singing the verses out of Euripides's Andromache:

       In Greece, alas! How ill things ordered are!

Then Alexander taking a partisan from one of his guard, as Cleitus was coming towards him, and had lifted up the hanging before the door, he ran him through the body, so that Cleitus fell to the ground, and fetching one groan, died presently.

Part Two

Alexander's choler had left him straight, and he became marvellous sorrowful: and when he saw his friends round about him say never a word, he plucked the partisan out of his [Cleitus'] body, and would have thrust it into his own throat. Howbeit his guard about him caught him by the hands and carried him perforce into his chamber: and there he did nothing all that night but weep bitterly, and the next day following, until such time as he was able to cry no more, but lying on the ground, only lay sighing.

His friends hearing his voice no more, were afraid, and came into his chamber by force to comfort him. But Alexander would hear none of them, saving Aristander the soothsayer, who remembered him of his dream he had of Cleitus before, which was a prognostication of that which had happened: whereby it appeared that it was his destiny before he was born. This seemed to comfort Alexander.

They now brought Callisthenes the philosopher (the near friend of Aristotle) and Anaxarchus of Abdera to him. Callisthenes used moral language, and gentle and soothing means, hoping to find access for words of reason, and get ahold upon the passion. But Anaxarchus, who had always taken a course of his own in philosophy, and had a name for despising and slighting his contemporaries, as soon as he came in cried out aloud,

"Is this the Alexander whom the whole world looks to, lying here weeping like a slave for fear of the censure and reproach of men, to whom he himself ought to be a law and measure of equity, if he would use the right his conquests have given him as supreme lord and governor of all, and not be the victim of a vain and idle opinion? Do you not know," said he, "that Jupiter is represented to have Justice and Law on each hand of him, to signify that all the actions of a conqueror are lawful and just?"

With these and the like speeches, Anaxarchus indeed allayed the king's grief, but withal corrupted his character, rendering him more audacious and lawless than he had been. Nor did he fail by these means to insinuate himself into his favour, and to make Callisthenes' company, which at all times because of his austerity was not very acceptable, more uneasy and disagreeable to him.

Narration and Discussion

Had Alexander lost his principles (such as devotion to his friends), or was this simply an unfortunate event caused by too much drink?

How did the words of Anaxarchus soothe away the king's guilt, but also "corrupt his character?" Can you think of real-life or literary examples where facing an uncomfortable truth has led to repentance? (A Bible verse to look up: Proverbs 28:23.)

Creative narration: Dramatize (or write the script for) the scene between Alexander and the philosophers.

Lesson Eighteen

Introduction

The last lesson told the story of Cleitus, Alexander's old friend who was killed as a result both of his own temper and the king's increasingly unstable nature. Now we read about another man who paid a similar price, but this time for his unwillingness to compromise his deepest principles.

Vocabulary

at King Alexander's board: at his dinner table

touching the seasons…: talking about the weather

galled Anaxarchus to the quick: stung him to the heart

estimation: good status, reputation

an oration extempore: an unrehearsed speech

inveighing: protesting, complaining

odious to them: hated by them

Hermolaus' conspiracy: Alexander's page Hermolaus conspired with others to assassinate the king, in revenge for a certain punishment. Hermolaus blamed Callisthenes for suggesting the idea.

engaged in the design: involved in the conspiracy

brought up with him: brought up in Aristotle's house

kinsman: relative

apprehended: arrested, seized

Historic Occasions

327 B.C.: the conspiracy of Hermolaus, while the army was in Bactria

On the Map

Bactria: a region of Central Asia, corresponding to present-day Afghanistan

Reading

Part One

It is written also that there was certain talk one night at King Alexander's board touching the seasons of the year, and temperateness of the air, and that Callisthenes was of the opinion which maintained that the country they were in at that time was much colder, and the winter also sharper, than in Greece. Anaxarchus held the contrary opinion, and stiffly maintained it, insomuch as Callisthenes said unto him: "And yet must thou grant, that it is colder here than there. For there you used to have but one threadbare cloak to keep out the coldest winter, and here you have three good warm mantles one over another."

This galled Anaxarchus to the quick and made him more angry than before; and for the other rhetoricians and flatterers, they did also hate him [Callisthenes], because they saw him followed by young men for his eloquence, and beloved also of old men for his honest life, the which was very grave, modest, and contented with his own, desiring no man's else. Whereby men found that the reason he alleged for following of Alexander in this voyage was true: for he said that he came to be a humble suitor to the king, to restore his banished citizens into their country again, and to replenish their city with inhabitants.

Now, though [Callisthenes'] estimation made him chiefly to be envied; yet did he himself give his enemies occasion to accuse him. For oftentimes being invited by the king to supper, either he would not come, or if he came, he would be mute, and say nothing, showing by his gravity and silence that nothing pleased him that was either said or done. Whereupon Alexander himself said on a time unto him:

       I cannot think that person wise,
       That in his own case hath no eyes.

Being with many more invited to sup with the king, he was called upon when the cup came to him, to make an oration extempore in praise of the Macedonians; and he did it with such a flow of eloquence, that all who heard it rose from their seats to clap and applaud him, and threw their garland upon him; only Alexander told him out of Euripides:

       It is no mastery to be eloquent,
       In handling of a plenteous argument.

"Therefore," said he, "if you will show the force of your eloquence, tell my Macedonians their faults, and dispraise them, that by hearing their errors they may learn to be better for the future." Callisthenes presently obeyed him, retracting all he had said before, and, inveighing against the Macedonians with great freedom, added that Philip thrived and grew powerful chiefly by the discord of the Grecians, alleging these verses:

       Where discord reigns in realm or town,
       Even wicked folk do win renown;

which so offended the Macedonians, that he was odious to them ever after.

[omission for length]

Part Two

Therefore when Hermolaus' conspiracy came to be discovered, the charges which [Callisthenes'] enemies brought against him were the more easily believed, particularly that when the young man asked him what he should do to be the most illustrious person on earth, he told him the readiest way was to kill him who was already so; and that to incite him to commit the deed, he bade him not be awed by the golden couch, but remember Alexander was a man equally infirm and vulnerable as another. However, none of Hermolaus' accomplices, in the utmost extremity, made any mention of Callisthenes' being engaged in the design. And Alexander himself also writing of this treason immediately after, unto Craterus, Attalus, and Alcetas, said that their servants which had been racked and put to the torture did constantly affirm that they only had conspired his death, and no man else was privy unto it.

But afterwards, he sent another letter unto Antipater, wherein he directly accused Callisthenes, and said that his servants [Dryden: the young men] had already been stoned to death by the Macedonians; howbeit that he himself would afterwards also punish the master, and those that had sent unto him and that had received the murderers into their cities, who came of purpose to kill him. And therein he plainly showed the ill-will he bore unto Aristotle, for that Callisthenes had been brought up with him, being his kinsman.

Callisthenes' death is variously related. Some say he was hanged by Alexander's orders; others, that he died of sickness in prison; but Chares writes he was kept in chains seven months after he was apprehended, on purpose that he might be proceeded against in full council, when Aristotle should be present; and that growing very fat, and contracting a disease of vermin, he there died about the time that Alexander was wounded in India.

[omission for length]

Narration and Discussion

Callisthenes was "followed by young men for his eloquence, and beloved also of old men for his honest life." How did he end up in such deep trouble and with such a sad death?

Alexander told Callisthenes that it took no great skill to make a speech praising his men; but that it would be a much greater feat to "dispraise" them. Why do you think Callisthenes agreed to this challenge? Would you have done so?

Lesson Nineteen

Introduction

Alexander's journey to India grew out of his desire to conquer the entire known world. From a historical standpoint, we run into some limitations and difficulties with Plutarch's version of the story. One problem is that other authors, such as Arrian in his Anabasis, covered the Indian campaign in more detail than Plutarch did. Another is that later historians have re-examined the earlier accounts, trying to determine what details were most likely true, and which ones may have been exaggerated or simply misunderstood. One example is Alexander's granting of kingdoms to Porus in Lesson Twenty; in fact, Porus probably ruled that territory already.

For the purposes of this study, we will confine ourselves to the story as the "moral biographer" Plutarch tells it. But those who wish to go deeper will find no shortage of material!

Vocabulary

laden with spoils: weighed down with treasure

victuals: food

the fortress of Sisimithres: also called the Sogdian Rock

in recompense thereof: as payment or reward

capitulation: surrender, ceasing to resist

the choice of his horsemen: his best cavalry officers

twenty furlongs: 2.5 miles (about 4 km)

four cubits and a span high: about seven feet (2 m) tall

People

Oxyartes: a nobleman of Bactria, and the father of Roxane

Taxiles: the ruler of a region in the Punjab, of which the capital city was Taxila. His proper name was Ambhi, but the Greek chroniclers called him Taxiles/Taxilas. He took part in the Battle of the Hydaspes, and was involved first in pursuit of and then in negotiations with Porus.

Porus [Poros]: the ruler of a neighbouring region, who was not on good terms with Taxiles.

Historic Occasions

326 B.C.: Battle of the Hydaspes River, against Porus

On the Map

Referring to a map of Alexander's journeys in India will be helpful. (A useful search term is "Indian campaign of Alexander the Great.")

city of Nysa: Nisatta, located in present-day Pakistan

River of Hydaspes: the Jhelum River

Reading

Part One

Alexander, now intent upon his expedition into India, took notice that his soldiers were so laden with spoils that it hindered their marching. Therefore, at break of day, as soon as the baggage wagons were laden, first he set fire to his own, and to those of his friends, and then commanded those to be burnt which belonged to the rest of the army: an act which in the deliberation of it had seemed more dangerous and difficult than it proved in the execution, with which few were dissatisfied; for most of the soldiers, as if they had been inspired, uttering loud outcries and warlike shoutings, supplied one another with what was absolutely necessary, and burnt and destroyed all that was superfluous, the sight of which redoubled Alexander's zeal and eagerness for his design.

And, indeed, this made Alexander much more severe than he was before, besides that he was already become cruel enough; and without mercy or pardon he did sharply punish every man that offended. For having commanded Menander, one of his friends, to keep him a fortress, he put him to death, because he would not remain there. Furthermore, he himself slew Orsodates (a captain of the barbarous people) with a javelin, for that he rebelled against him.

[omission: certain signs and omens]

And truly so did he sustain many dangers in those wars and was oftentimes hurt in fight. But the greatest loss he had of his men was for lack of victuals, and by the infection of the air. For he, striving to overcome Fortune by valiantness, and her force by virtue, thought nothing impossible for a valiant man, neither anything able to withstand a noble heart.

It is reported, that when he went to besiege [the fortress of Sisimithres], it being thought unassaultable, and that his soldiers were in despair of it, he asked Oxyartes what heart Sisimethres had. Oxyartes answered him, that he was the veriest coward in the world. "O, that is well," quoth Alexander: "then it is to be won, if that be true thou sayest, since the captain of the fortress is but a coward." So he took it of a sudden, by putting Sisimethres in a great fear.

After that also, he did besiege another fortress of as great strength and difficulty to assault as the other, and making the young soldiers of the Macedonians to go to the assault, he called one of them unto him, whose name also was Alexander, unto whom he said thus: "Alexander, this day thou must fight like a man, and it be but for thy namesake." The young man did not forget his words, for he fought so valiantly, that he was slain, for whom Alexander was very sorry.

Another time when his men were afraid, and dared not come near unto the city of Nysa to assault it, because there ran a very deep river hard by the walls: he came to the riverside, and said: "Oh, what a coward am I, that never learned to swim!" and so prepared himself to swim over upon his shield. Here, after the assault was over, the ambassadors who, from several towns which he had blocked up, came to submit to him and make their peace, were surprised to find him still in his armour, without anyone in waiting or attendance upon him; and when at last someone brought him a cushion, he made the eldest of them, named Acuphis, take it and sit down upon it.

Acuphis marvelling at Alexander's great courtesy, asked him what they should do for him, thenceforth to be his good friends. "I will," said Alexander, "that they from whom thou comest as ambassador unto us do make thee their king: and withal that they do send me a hundred of their best men for hostages." Acuphis, smiling, answered him again: "But I shall rule them better, king, if I send you the worst, and not the best."

Part Two

The extent of King Taxiles' dominions in India was thought to be as large as Egypt, abounding in good pastures, and producing beautiful fruits. The king himself had the reputation of a wise man, and at his first interview with Alexander he spoke to him in these terms:

"What should we need, Alexander, to fight, and make wars one with another, if thou comest not to take away our water, and our necessary commodity to live by: for which things, men of judgment must needs fight? As for other goods, if I be richer than thou, I am ready to give thee of mine: and if I have less, I will not think scorn to thank thee, if thou wilt give me some of thine."

This discourse pleased Alexander so much that, embracing him, [he said]:

"Thinkest thou this meeting of ours can be without fight, for all these goodly fair words? No, no, thou hast won nothing by that: for I will fight and contend with thee in honesty and courtesy, because thou shalt not exceed me in bounty and liberality."

So Alexander taking divers gifts of him, but giving more unto Taxiles: he drank to him one night at supper, and said, "I drink to thee a thousand talents in gold." This gift misliked Alexander's friends: but in recompense thereof, he won the hearts of many of those barbarous lords and princes of that country.

But the best soldiers of the Indians now entering into the pay of several of the cities, undertook to defend them, and did it so bravely, that they put Alexander to a great deal of trouble, till at last, after a capitulation, upon the surrender of the place, he fell upon them as they were marching away, and put them all to the sword. This one breach of his word remains as a blemish upon his achievements in war, which he otherwise had performed throughout with that justice and honour that became a king. Nor was he less incommoded by the Indian philosophers, who inveighed against those princes who joined his party, and solicited the free nations to oppose him. He took several of these also and caused them to be hanged.

Part Three

Alexander, in his own letters, has given us an account of his war with Porus. He says that, both their camps lying on either side of the River of Hydaspes, King Porus set his elephants upon the bank of the river with their heads towards their enemies, to keep them from passing over: and that he himself did continually make a noise and tumult in his camp, to acquaint his men not to be afraid of the barbarous people.

Furthermore, that in a dark night when there was no moonlight, he took part of his footmen, and the choice of his horsemen, and went far from his enemies to get over into a little island. When he was come into the island, there fell a wonderful shower of rain, great winds, lightnings and thunders upon his camp, insomuch as he saw many of his men burnt by lightning in this little island. He nevertheless quitted the island and made over to the other side.

The river being swollen with the great flood of rain that fell the night before, overflowing the banks, it did eat into the ground where the water ran: so that Alexander when he had passed over the river, and was come to the other side, found himself in very ill case, for that he could hardly keep his feet, because the earth was very slippery under him, and the rage of the water had eaten into it, and broken it down on every side. It is written of him, that then he said unto the Athenians, "O ye Athenians, will ye believe what dangers I incur to merit your praise?" Thus Onesicritus reporteth it.

Alexander says (that) here the men left their boats, and passed the breach in their armour, up to the breast in water, and that then he advanced with his horse about twenty furlongs before his foot soldiers, concluding that if the enemy charged him with their cavalry, he should be too strong for them; and if with their foot soldiers, his own would come up in time enough to his assistance. Nor did he judge amiss; for being charged by a thousand horse and sixty armed chariots, which advanced before their main body, he took all the chariots, and killed four hundred horse upon the place. King Porus then knowing by those signs that Alexander was there in person, and that he had passed over the river: he marched towards him with all his army in battle array, saving a few which he left behind to hold the rest of the Macedonians in play, if they should attempt to pass the river.

Alexander, being afraid of the great multitude of his enemies, and of the terror of the elephants, did not give charge upon the midst of the battle; but being himself in the left wing, he gave charge upon the corner of the enemy's left wing, and also commanded them that were in the right wing to do the like. So, both the ends of the enemy's army were broken and put to flight; and they that fled ran unto the elephants and gathered themselves together about them.

Thus, the battle being begun, the conflict continued long, insomuch as the enemies were scantly all overthrown by three of the clock in the afternoon. Almost all the historians agree in relating that Porus was four cubits and a span high, and that when he was upon his elephant, which was of the largest size, his stature and bulk were so answerable, that he appeared to be proportionably mounted as a horseman on his horse. This elephant did show great wit and care, to save the king his master. For whilst he perceived his master was strong enough, he lustily repulsed those which came to assail him: but when he found that he began to faint, having many wounds upon his body, and arrows sticking in it: then being afraid lest his master should fall down from his back, he softly fell on his knees, and gently taking his darts and arrows with his trunk, which he had in his body, he plucked them all from him one after another.

Narration and Discussion

Alexander was said to be more severe (North says "rigorous") than he had been before. Give some evidence of this. Why do you think he had become harsher and less forgiving?

Tell about the battle Alexander fought with Porus.

For older students: Alexander said that there was nothing "able to withstand a noble heart." Do you agree?

Lesson Twenty

Introduction

After the victorious but costly battle at Hydaspes, Alexander wanted to continue the campaign, and to cross the Ganges River. However, his men refused to go on, either from homesickness and exhaustion, or from embarrassment that they had had so much difficulty fighting a minor ruler like Porus. Alexander was forced to agree to head back.

Vocabulary

satrap: governor

bits of bridles: part of the horses' reins

veneration: awe, reverence

rampart: defensive wall

scimitar: curved sword

mortally: fatally, to death

he was taken…: he was unconscious and seemed almost dead

On the Map

Alexander's troops continued to the southwest, following the Indus River to the Arabian Sea.

city of the Mallians: The Mallians are thought to be the Malavas (or Malwas), a tribe which had settled in the Punjab region

Reading

Part One

Porus being taken, Alexander asked him how he should handle him. "Princely," answered Porus. [Dryden: "As a king."] Alexander asked him again, if he would say anything else. "I comprehend all," said he, "in this word ‘princely.'" And Alexander, accordingly, not only suffered him to govern his own kingdom as satrap under himself, but he gave him also the additional territory of various independent tribes whom he subdued, a district which, it is said, contained fifteen several nations and five thousand considerable towns, besides abundance of villages. To another government, three times as large as this, he appointed Philip, one of his friends.

His horse Bucephalus died at this battle, not in the field, but afterwards whilst he was in cure for the wounds he had on his body; but as Onesicritus saith, he died even worn for very age. Alexander was as sorry for his death as if he had lost any of his familiar friends; and for proof thereof, he built a great city in the place where his horse was buried, upon the river of Hydaspes, the which he called after his name, Bucephalusia [short omission].

This last battle against King Porus killed the Macedonians' hearts, and made them that they had no desire to go any further to conquer India.

[omission for length]

Alexander, offended with his men's refusal, kept close in his tent for certain days, and lay upon the ground, saying that he did not thank them for all that they had done already, unless they passed over the River of Ganges also: and that to return back again, it was as much as to confess that he had been overcome. At the length, when he saw and considered that there was great reason in his friends' persuasions which laboured to comfort him, and that his soldiers came to the door of his tent, crying and lamenting, humbly beseeching him to lead them back again: in the end he took pity of them, and was contented to return.

This notwithstanding, before he departed from those parts, he put forth many vain and false devices to make his name immortal among that people. He made armours of greater proportion than his own, and mangers for horses, higher than the common sort: moreover, he made bits of bridles also far heavier than the common sort and made them to be thrown and scattered abroad in every place. He built great altars also in honour of the gods, the which the kings of the Praesians have in great veneration at this day: and passing over the river, do make sacrifices there, after the manner of the Grecians.

[omission for length]

Part Two

Alexander was now eager to see the ocean. To which purpose he caused a great many rowboats and rafts to be built, in the which he easily went down the rivers at his pleasure. Howbeit, this his pleasant going by water was not without war: for he would land oftentimes, and did assail cities, and conquered all as he went. Yet in assailing the city of the Mallians (which they say are the warlikest men of all the Indians), he was almost slain there.

For, having repulsed the enemies from the wall, he himself was the first man that set foot on a ladder to get up, the which brake as soon as ever he was gotten upon the rampart. Then the barbarous people coming together against the wall, did throw darts at him from beneath, and many times lighted upon him. Alexander, having few of his men about him, made no more ado but leaped down from the wall in the midst of his enemies, and by good hap lighted on his feet. His harness making a great noise with the fall, the barbarous people were afraid, thinking they had seen some light or spirit go before him: so that at the first they all betook them to their legs, and ran scatteringly here and there.

Till seeing him seconded but by two of his guards, they fell upon him hand to hand, and some, while he bravely defended himself, tried to wound him through his armour with their swords and spears. And one who stood further off drew a bow with such just strength that the arrow, finding its way through his [armour], stuck in his ribs under the breast. This stroke was so violent that it made him give back, and set one knee to the ground upon which the man ran up with his drawn scimitar, thinking to dispatch him, and [would] have done it, if Peucestas and Limnaeus had not interposed, who were both wounded, Limnaeus mortally, but Peucestas stood his ground, while Alexander killed the barbarians.

But this did not free him from danger; for, besides many other wounds, at last he received so weighty a stroke of a club upon his neck that he was forced to lean his body against the wall, still, however, facing the enemy. At this extremity, the Macedonians made their way in and gathered round him. They took him up, just as he was fainting away, having lost all sense of what was done near him, and conveyed him to his tent, upon which it was present reported all over the camp that he was dead. But when they had with great difficulty and pains sawed off the shaft of the arrow, which was of wood, and so with much trouble got off his armour, they came to cut the head of it, which was three fingers broad and four long, and stuck fast in the bone. During the operation he was taken with almost mortal swoonings, but when it was out he came to himself again.

 Yet though all danger was past, he continued very weak, and confined himself a great while to a regular diet and the method of his cure: until he heard the Macedonians cry, and make great noise about his tent, desirous to see him. Then he took his cloak and came out amongst them all: and after he had done sacrifice unto the gods for recovery of his health, he went on his journey again, and in the same did conquer many great countries and took divers goodly cities.

Narration and Discussion

"…he put forth many vain and false devices to make his name immortal among that people." How did Alexander himself contribute to romantic legends about his greatness?

What may have been some of the reasons that Alexander was less successful in India than he had been elsewhere?

Lesson Twenty-One

Introduction

Part One of this lesson is a dialogue about philosophical conundrums. Those working in groups might enjoy acting it out. Part Two describes the continuing travels of Alexander's army.

Vocabulary

pertinent: this can be translated "correct"

going still through the country: as explained in the next sentence, they created a "travelling banquet"

rising up of height: the meaning of this is not clear

flutes and shawms: musical instruments

fooling: dancing, drinking, and revelry

Historic Occasions

324 B.C.: Alexander returned to Persia

 On the Map

Beginning the journey back to Macedonia, the army moved westward, following the Arabian Sea coast. They then travelled northwest through the countries of Gedrosia and Carmania.

Sea Oceanum: This is a translation of the Latin "Mare Oceanum" or "World-Encircling Ocean." It referred to exactly that: the Atlantic Ocean, which surrounded the known world.

island called Scillustis: an island near the mouth of the Indus River, which likely no longer exists

Reading

Part One

In this voyage, (Alexander) took ten Indian philosophers prisoner, who had been most active in persuading Sabbas to revolt [in 325 B.C.], and who had caused the Macedonians a great deal of trouble. These men, called Gymnosophists, were reputed to be extremely ready and succinct in their answers, which he made trial of by putting difficult questions to them, letting them know that those whose answers were not pertinent should be put to death; of which he made the eldest of them judge.

The question he asked the first man was this:

1. Whether the dead or the living were the greater number. He answered, the living. "For the dead," said he, "are no more men."

2. The second man he asked: whether the earth, or the sea brought forth most creatures. He answered, the earth. "For the sea," said he, "is but a part of the earth."

3. To the third man: which of all beasts was the subtlest. "That," said he, "which man hitherto never knew."

4. To the fourth: why did he make Sabbas rebel? "Because," said he, "he should live honourably, or die vilely."

5. To the fifth, which he thought was first, the day, or the night? He answered, "the day, by a day." The king, finding his answer strange, added to this speech: "Strange questions must needs have strange answers."

6. Coming to the sixth man, he asked him how a man should come to be beloved. "If he be a good man," said he, "not terrible."

7. To the seventh, how a man should be a god? "In doing a thing," said he, "impossible for a man."

8. To the eight, which was the stronger: life or death? "Life," said he, "that suffereth so many troubles."

9. And unto the ninth and last man: how long a man should live? "Until," said he, "he think it better to die, than to live."

When Alexander had heard these answers, he turned unto the judge, and bade him give his judgment upon them. The judge said that they had all answered one worse than another.

"Then shalt thou die first," said Alexander, "because thou hast given such sentence."

"Not so, O King," replied the gymnosophist, "unless you said falsely that he should die first who made the worst answer."

In conclusion Alexander gave them presents and dismissed them.

[omission for length]

Part Two

Alexander continued seven months travelling upon the rivers, to go see the great Sea Oceanum. Then he took ship, and sailed into a little island called Scillustis, howbeit others call it Psiltucis. There he landed, made sacrifices unto the gods, and viewed the greatness and nature of the sea Oceanum, and all the situation of the coast upon that sea, as far as he could go.

[omission for length: some difficult travels]

After sixty days' march he came into Gedrosia, where he found great plenty of all things, which the neighbouring kings and governors of provinces, hearing of his approach, had taken care to provide. After he had refreshed his army there a little, he went through the country of Carmania, where he continued seven days together banqueting, going still through the country. For night and day, he was feasting continually with his friends upon a platform erected on a scaffold longer than broad, rising up of height, and drawn with eight goodly horses. After that scaffold followed divers other chariots covered over, some covered with purple and embroidered canopies, and some with green boughs, which were continually supplied afresh: and in those were Alexander's other friends and captains with garlands of flowers upon their heads, which drank and made merry together. Here was now no helmet, pike, dart, nor target seen: but gold and silver bowls, cups, and flagons in the soldiers' hands, all the way as they went, drawing wine out of great pipes and vessels which they carried with them, one drinking to another, some marching in the fields going forward, and others also set at the table. About them were the minstrels playing and piping on their flutes and shawms, and women singing and dancing, and fooling by the way as they went.

[omission: mature content]

Narration and Discussion

In Part One, which was your favourite answer of the nine? (Creative narration: find a way to expand on it, through art, poetry, or drama.)

How did the tenth philosopher show that he was the wisest of all?

Lesson Twenty-Two

Introduction

Alexander, in spite of the travelling party described in the previous lesson, had suffered setbacks during his time in India. Many men had died, and the army was in such a weak state that cities he had "conquered" were rebelling. People in Macedonia thought (happily or sadly) that he would never return from his journey. But Alexander was not ready to give up the territory he had claimed, or his dream of a triumphant return. He even took the opportunity to get married.

Vocabulary

he resolved himself to sail…: this voyage was planned, but did not take place

great insolencies…: the governors were growing rich by overtaxing their people

broil and sedition: turmoil, uprisings

a faction against Antipater: Antipater had been left to govern during Alexander's absence

a crown: a piece of gold

People

Cyrus: Cyrus the Great, who lived in the sixth century B.C., was the founder of the Persian empire.

Antigonus: a Macedonian general; see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

324 B.C.: Alexander returned to Persia and married Statira

On the Map

Thapsacus: a town on the Euphrates (in modern-day Syria)

Reading

Part One

At Gedrosia, Aleander's admiral, Nearchus, came to him and delighted him so with the narrative of his voyage, that he resolved himself to sail out of the mouth of the Euphrates with a great fleet, with which he designed to go round by Arabia and Africa, and so by Hercules' Pillars into the Mediterranean; in order for which he directed all sorts of vessels to be built at Thapsacus, and made provision everywhere of seamen and pilots.

But now the difficulty of the journey which he took upon him for the conquest of India, the danger he was in when he fought with the Mallians, and the number of his men which he lost besides which was very great; all these things considered together made men believe that he should never return with safety. They made all the people (which he had conquered) bold to rise against him and gave his governors and lieutenants of provinces occasion to commit great insolencies, robberies, and exactions of people. To be short, it put all his kingdom in broil and sedition. Even at home, Olympias and Cleopatra had raised a faction against Antipater, and divided his government between them, Olympias seizing upon Epirus, and Cleopatra upon Macedonia. When Alexander was told of it, he said his mother had made the best choice, for the Macedonians would never endure to be ruled by a woman.

Thereupon he sent Nearchus back again to the sea, determining to fill all the seacoasts with war. As he travelled through the countries far from the sea, he put his captains and governors to death which had revolted against him [short omission].

Part Two

As he came through the country of Persia, he first renewed the old custom there, which was that when the kings did return home from any far journey, they gave unto every woman a crown apiece. It is said therefore that for this cause, some of their natural kings many times did not return again into their country [short omission].

Then finding Cyrus's sepulcher opened and rifled, he put Polymachus, who did it, to death, though he was a man of some distinction, a born Macedonian of Pella. When he had read the inscription written upon it in the Persian tongue, he would needs also have it written in the Greek tongue: and this it was:

"O man, what so thou art, and whencesoever thou comest, for I know thou shalt come: I am Cyrus that conquered the Empire of Persia, and I pray thee envy me not for this little earth that covereth my body."

These words pierced Alexander's heart, when he considered the uncertainty of worldly things.

[omitted: the suicide of Calanus the philosopher]

At Susa, he married Darius's daughter Statira, and celebrated also the nuptials of his friends, bestowing the noblest of the Persian ladies upon the worthiest of them, at the same time making it an entertainment in honour of the other Macedonians whose marriages had already taken place. At this feast, it is written that, nine thousand persons sitting at the boards, he gave unto every one of them a cup of gold to offer wine in honour of the gods. And there also, amongst other wonderful gifts, he did pay all the debts the Macedonians owed unto their creditors, the which amounted unto the sum of ten thousand talents saving a hundred and thirty less.

Whereupon Antigonus, who had lost one of his eyes, though he owed nothing, got his name set down in the list of those who were in debt, and bringing one who pretended to be his creditor, and to have supplied him from the bank, received the money. But when the cheat was found out, the king was so incensed at it, that he banished him from court, and took away his command, though he was an excellent soldier and a man of great courage. For when he was but a young man, he was shot into the eye, before the city of Perinthus, which King Philip did besiege: and at that present time they would have plucked the arrow out of his eye, but he never fainted for it, neither would suffer them to pull it out, before he had first driven his enemies within the walls of their city. Accordingly, he was not able to support such a disgrace with any patience, and it was plain that grief and despair would have made him kill himself, but that the king fearing it, not only pardoned him, but bade him besides keep the money which was given him.

Narration and Discussion

How did Alexander show that he still valued generosity?

Antigonus appears to have been a bit of a scoundrel. Why did Alexander let him off the hook?

For older students: Compare Alexander's reaction to the inscription about Cyrus to the previous discussion with the Gymnosophists. What may have been going through his mind?

Lesson Twenty-Three

Introduction

Alexander remained at Susa for a time, although Plutarch also mentions a trip to Ecbatana>. He then prepared to travel westward to Babylon, not knowing it would be his last journey.

Vocabulary

thirty thousand boys: see Lesson Sixteen, Part Two

sick and impotent: those who were physically unable to serve

they let fall their stoutness: they let go of their stubbornness

naked in their shirts: this showed their humility

capon: a male chicken that has been neutered

tennis: this is North's translation; some sort of ball game

diadem: royal crown (sometimes in the form of a headband)

irons: chains

Aristotle's quiddities to argue pro and contra: Alexander, having studied with Aristotle, recognized his methods of argument

People

Antipater, Iolaus, Cassander.: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

October, 324 B.C.: Death of Hephaestion

On the Map

Media (Medes): a region of northwestern Iran

Babylon: an ancient city of southern Mesopotamia

Reading

Part One

The thirty thousand boys, whom he left behind him to be taught and disciplined, were so improved at his return (to Persia), both in strength and beauty, and (they) performed their exercises with such dexterity and wonderful agility, that Alexander rejoiced when he saw them. This, notwithstanding, did much discourage the Macedonians, and made them greatly afraid, because they thought that from henceforth the king would make less account of them.

For when Alexander would have sent the sick and impotent persons, which had been maimed in the wars, into the low country, to the seaside: they answered him, that so doing he should do them great wrong, to send these poor men from him in that sort (after they had done him all the service they could) home to their country and friends, in worse case than he took them from thence. And therefore, they said, if he would send away some, let him send them all away as men unserviceable, specially since he had now such goodly young dancers about him with whom he might go conquer the world.

 Alexander was marvellously offended with their proud words, insomuch that in his anger he reviled them all, put away his ordinary guard, and took Persians in their place, making some the guard about his own person, and others his ushers, heralds, and ministers to execute his will and commandment.

The poor Macedonians, seeing Alexander thus waited on, and themselves so shamefully rejected, they let fall their stoutness, and after they had communed of the matter together, they were ready to tear themselves for spite and malice. In fine when they had laid their heads together, they consented to go unto his tent and without weapons, naked in their shirts to yield themselves unto him, weeping and howling, beseeching him to do with them what pleased him, and to use them like wretched unthankful creatures.

But Alexander, though his anger was now somewhat pacified, did not receive them the first time; neither did they also go their ways, but remained there two days and nights together, in this pitiful state, before the door of his tent, lamenting unto him, and calling him their sovereign and king: until that he came himself out of his tent the third day, and seeing the poor wretches in this grievous and pitiful state, he himself fell a-weeping a long time. So, after he had a little rebuked them, he called them courteously, and gave the impotent and sick persons leave to depart home, rewarding them very honourably. Furthermore, he wrote unto Antipater his lieutenant that he should always give them the highest place in all common sports and assemblies, and that they should be crowned with garlands of flowers. Moreover, he commanded that the orphans whose parents were slain in the wars should receive the pay of their fathers.

Part Two

After Alexander was come unto the city of Ecbatana, in the kingdom of Media, and that he had dispatched his weightiest causes: he gave himself again unto public sports, feasts, and pastimes, for that there were newly come unto him, out of Greece, three thousand excellent masters and devisers of such sports. But they were soon interrupted by Hephaestion's falling sick of a fever, in which, being a young man and a soldier too, he could not confine himself to so exact a diet as was necessary. Having spied opportunity that his physician Glaucus was gone unto the theatre to see the sports and pastimes, he went to dinner, and ate a roasted capon whole, and drank a great potful of wine, which he had caused to be set in water: whereupon his fever took him so sorely that he lived not long after.

[omission for length: Alexander's grief at the death of his friend]

Now as he was ready to take his journey to go unto Babylon, Nearchus his admiral came again unto him from the great Sea Oceanum, by the river of Euphrates, and told him how certain Chaldean soothsayers came unto him, who did warn him that he should not go into Babylon. Howbeit, Alexander made no reckoning of it but went on. But when he came hard to the walls of Babylon, he saw a great number of crows fighting and killing one of another, and some of them fell down dead [near] him. Afterwards it being told him that Apollodorus, the governor of the city of Babylon, having sacrificed unto the gods to know what should happen to him: he sent for the soothsayer Pythagoras, to know of him if it were true. The soothsayer denied it not. Then Alexander asked him what signs he had in the sacrifice. He answered, that the liver was defective in its lobe. "O gods," said Alexander then, "this is an ill sign." Notwithstanding, he did Pythagoras no hurt, but was sorry that he had neglected Nearchus' advice, and stayed for the most part outside the town, removing his tent from place to place, and sailing up and down the Euphrates.

Yet had he many other ill signs and tokens one upon another that made him afraid. For there was a tame ass that killed one of the greatest and goodliest lions in all Babylon with one of his feet. Another time Alexander had put off his clothes, to be anointed to play at tennis. When he should put on his apparel again, the young gentleman that played with him found a man clad in the king's robes, with a diadem upon his head, sitting silently upon his throne. Then they asked him what he was? It was long before he made them answer, but at the length coming to himself, he said his name was Dionysius, born in Messina: and being accused for certain crimes committed, he was sent from the sea thither, where he had been a long time prisoner, and also that the god Serapis had appeared unto him, and undone his irons, and that he commanded him to take the king's gown and his diadem, and to sit him down in his chair of estate, and say never a word. When Alexander heard it, he put him to death according to the counsel of his soothsayers: but then his mind was troubled. He feared that the gods had forsaken him, and he also grew to suspect his friends.

But first of all, Alexander feared Antipater and his sons, above all other. For one of them called Iolaus, was his first cupbearer: and his brother called Cassander, was newly come out of Greece unto him. The first time that Cassander saw some of the barbarous people reverencing Alexander, he having been brought up with the manners of Greece, and had never seen the like before: he fell into a loud laughing, very unreverently. Therewith King Alexander was so offended, that he took him by the hair of his head with both his hands and knocked his head and the wall together.

Another time also when Cassander did answer some that accused his father Antipater: King Alexander took him up sharply and said unto him: "What sayest thou?" said he. "Dost thou think that these men would have gone on so long a journey as this, falsely to accuse thy father, if he had not done them wrong?" Cassander again replied unto Alexander, and said, that that was a manifest proof of their false accusation, for that they did now accuse him being so far off, because they thought they could not suddenly be disproved. Alexander smiled, and said, "Lo, these are Aristotle's quiddities to argue pro and contra: but this will not save you from punishment, if I find that you have done these men wrong."

In fine, they report that Cassander took such an inward fear and conceit upon it, that long time after when he was king of Macedon, and had all Greece at his commandment: going up and down the city of Delphi, and beholding the monuments and images that are there, he found one of Alexander, which put him into such a sudden fear that the hairs of his head stood upright, and his body quaked in such sort, that it was a great time before he could come to himself again.

Narration and Discussion

Why did the successful training of the Persian boys create such jealousy among the Macedonians?

Did Alexander seem particularly worried by the string of "bad omens?"

For older students: "They answered him, that so doing he should do them great wrong, to send these poor men from him…" Why were Alexander's soldiers so angry with him for suggesting what might seem a humane gesture, sending the wounded away to recover? How can "helping" sometimes be misapplied or misunderstood?

Lesson Twenty-Four

Introduction

This lesson describes the sudden and final illness of Alexander, at the age of thirty-two. The cause of his death has been attributed to everything from alcohol to typhoid fever to poison; but it seems to be a mystery that will never be solved.

Vocabulary

an ague: a fever

all at a draught: in one gulp

fell a-raving: became delirious

the thirtieth day: Plutarch's dates do not match those stated elsewhere, and seem inconsistent even within the text

watch and ward without: keep guard outside

Historic Occasions

323 B.C.: Death of Alexander in Babylon

Reading

Part One

When once Alexander had given way to fears of supernatural influence, his mind was so troubled and afraid, that no strange thing happened unto him, how little soever it was, but he took it straight for a sign and prediction from the gods: so that his tent was always full of priests and soothsayers [omission]. So horrible a thing is the mistrust and contempt of the gods, when it is begotten in the hearts of men, and superstition also so dreadful, that it filleth the guilty consciences and fearful hearts like water distilling from above: as at that time it filled Alexander with all folly, after that fear had once possessed him.

This notwithstanding, after that he had received some answers touching Hephaestion from the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, he left his sorrow, and returned again to his banquets and feasting. For he did sumptuously feast Nearchus, and one day when he came out of his bath according to his manner, being ready to go to bed, Medius (one of his captains) besought him to come to a banquet to him at his lodging. Alexander went thither and drank there all that night and the next day, so that he got an ague by it. But that came not (as some write) by drinking up Hercules' cup all at a draught: neither for the sudden pain he felt between his shoulders, as if he had been thrust into the back with a spear. For all these were thought to be written, by some, for lies and fables, because they would have made the end of this great tragedy lamentable and pitiful. But Aristobulus writeth, that he had such an extreme fever and thirst withal, that he drank wine, and after that fell a-raving, and at the length died the thirtieth day of the month of June.

[These are the details of his illness.] In his household book of things passed daily, it is written, that his fever being upon him, he slept in his hothouse [Dryden: in the bathing-room] on the eighteenth day of June. The next morning after he was come out of his hothouse, he went into his chamber, and passed all that day playing at dice: and at night very late, after he had bathed himself and sacrificed unto the gods, he fell to meat, and had his fever that night. And the twentieth day also, bathing himself again, and making his ordinary sacrifice to the gods, [he lay in the bathing-room], harkening unto Nearchus that told him strange things he had seen in the great Sea Oceanum. The twenty-first day also, having done the like as before, he was much more inflamed then he had been, and felt himself very ill all night, and the next day following in a great fever: and on that day he made his bed to be removed, and to be set up by the fish ponds [Dryden: by the great bath], where he discoursed with his principal officers about finding fit men to fill up the vacant places in the army.

The twenty-third day [Dryden: the twenty-fourth], having an extreme fever upon him, he was carried unto the sacrifices, and commanded that his chiefest captains only should remain in his lodging, and that the other meaner sort should watch and ward without. The twenty-fourth day [Dryden: the twenty-fifth], he was carried unto the other palace of the kings, which is on the other side of the lake, where he slept a little, but the fever never left him: and when his captains and noblemen came to do him humble reverence and to see him, he lay speechless.

So did he the following day also: insomuch as the Macedonians thought he was dead. Then they came and knocked at the palace gate, and cried out unto his friends and familiars, and threatened them, so that they were compelled to open them the gate. Thereupon the gates were opened, and they, coming in their gowns, went unto his bedside to see him. That same day Python and Seleucus were appointed by the king's friends to go to the temple of the god Serapis, to know if they should bring King Alexander thither. The god answered them, that they should not remove him from thence.

The eight and twentieth day at night Alexander died. Thus it is written word for word in manner, in the household book of remembrance.

Part Two

At [that] time, there was no suspicion that he was poisoned. Yet they say that, six years after, there appeared some proof that he was poisoned. Whereupon his mother Olympias put many men to death, and cast the ashes of Iolaus into the wind, that was dead before, for that it was said he [Iolaus] gave him [Alexander] poison in his drink.

They that think it was Aristotle that counselled Antipater to do it, by whose means the poison was brought: they say that Hagnothemis reported it, having heard it of King Antigonus' own mouth. The poison (as some say) was cold as ice, and falleth from a rock in the territory of the city of Nonacris, which they gathered like a thin dew, and kept in an ass's hoof; for it was so very cold and penetrating that no other vessel would hold it. Others defend it, and say, that the report of his poisoning is untrue: and for proof thereof they allege this reason, which is of no small importance: that is that the chiefest captains fell at great variance after his death, so that the corpse of Alexander remained many days naked without burial, in a hot dry country, and yet there never appeared any sign or token upon his body that he was poisoned, but it was still a clean and fair corpse as could be.

Roxane, who was now with child, and upon that account much honoured by the Macedonians, did malice Statira extremely, and did finely deceive her by a counterfeit letter she sent, as if it had come from Alexander, willing her to come unto him. But when she was come, Roxane killed her and her sister, and then threw their bodies into a well, and filled it up with earth, with Perdiccas' help and consent.

Perdiccas, in the time immediately following the king's death, under cover of the name of Arrhidaeus, whom he carried about him as a sort of guard to his person, exercised the chief authority [in Macedon].

[brief omission]

Narration and Discussion

In the introductory notes for this study, a teacher describes Alexander's "wisdom, valour, and self-reliance," and his "love of simplicity, generosity, and kindness to his men." Did those traits accurately describe Alexander throughout his life; or did his values change along with events and circumstances?

Creative narration: Take the part of a detective, and explain the motives of the suspects in Alexander's death. Is there enough evidence to make an arrest?

Examination Questions for Term Two

Younger students

1.       Why and how did Alexander teach his men to "acquaint themselves with hardness?"

2.       How did Alexander go to war with King Porus? Give the whole story.

Older students (Choose two of these)

1.       On what occasions were the following words used? Tell the whole story in two cases. (a) "If I drink alone, all these men will faint." (b) "Antipater," he said, "does not know that one tear of a mother effaces a thousand such letters as these."

2.       How did Alexander talk with the philosophers of India?

3.       "To live at pleasure is a vile thing, and to travail is princely." Why did Alexander thus rebuke his friends? Tell the whole story.

End of Part II, which was continued from Part I.

AmblesideOnline Plutarch Readings:

Plutarch Texts:
Aemilius Agis Alcibiades Alexander Aristides Brutus Julius Caesar Camillus Cato Cicero Coriolanus Crassus Demetrius Demosthenes Dion Fabius Gracchus Nicias Pericles Philopoemen Phocion Pompey, Pt 1 Pompey, Pt 2 Publicola Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Timoleon Titus Flamininus

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Plutarch Study Guides:
Aemilius Agis Alcibiades Alexander Aristides Brutus Julius Caesar Camillus Cato Cicero Coriolanus Crassus Demetrius Demosthenes Dion Fabius Gracchus Nicias Pericles Philopoemen Phocion Pompey, Pt 1 Pompey, Pt 2 Publicola Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Timoleon Titus Flamininus

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