The Parents' Review

A Monthly Magazine of Home-Training and Culture

Swedish School Gymnastics.

(Read before the Reading Branch of the Parents' National Educational Union, on November 12th, 1903.)

Some six years ago I had the pleasure of reading before this Society a paper on the general subject of "Physical Education." During the, I think I may saw, unusually lively discussion which followed this paper, it was suggested that I ought on some future occasion to give a more detailed account of the physical exercises which I then referred to and tried to prove as being a necessary part of a rational education.

My plan will now be first to consider the principles which should guide us in our choice of gymnastic exercises, how a day's work at the gymnasium, or what I will refer to as a "gymnastic lesson," should be composed of various kinds of exercises, the distinctive features and principal effects of each such class of exercises and where suitable to give examples of the different movements under discussion.

I think I cannot do better than beginning by recapitulating some of the chief points of my above-mentioned old paper on physical education; and I hope I may be forgiven for doing so, although this has even appeared in print, being taken in to the Parents' Review of January and February, 1898.

I pointed out there that it is the use of the body which makes it grow and develop, and that some form or other of their share in these duties. A sequel of the arrangement is that with us it is only officers and their equals that devote themselves to the teaching of gymnastics in the public schools.

For admission to the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute the same matriculation is required as for entering the Universities and the full course there is now three years in order to obtain a diploma as a teacher of gymnastics and as a practitioner of medical gymnastics, the last year being entirely devoted to the preparation for this part of the work.

For it ought to be explained that Ling divided his system of gymnastics into those for people in health and those for persons out of health, where the exercises come in as a remedy to cure or relieve pathological conditions of one kind or other. The first-mentioned class of exercises (those intended for healthy subjects) are subdivided into educational or school gymnastics and military gymnastics, including fencing, boxing, wrestling, etc. The exercises of these various divisions naturally merge imperceptibly into one another.

Ling remained the head of the R.G.C.I. until his death in 1839, and he has amongst other successors at this post had one or two medical men, so that this department of the training there has also been placed on a rational scientific footing.

However, it is with the school gymnastics that we have to occupy ourselves to-day, and, to return to Ling's classification of the exercises belonging to them, these are divided into nine different groups, each of which ought to be more or less represented in every gymnastic lesson. They are called:--

1. Introductory Exercises.
2. Archflexions.
3. Heaving Movements.
4. Balance Movements.
5. Back, Neck and Shoulder Movements.
6. Abdominal Exercises.
7. Lateral Trunk Movements.
8. Leaping (running, jumping, vaulting).
9. Breathing Exercises.

Some of these terms are in themselves descriptive enough, but others will admittedly require explanation, which I shall hope to be able to render.

1. The Introductory Exercises used in opening the lesson, are intended to form a transition to the physical work from previous mental occupations, to bring the pupil's muscles under the control of his will-power and to establish the necessary correspondence between his mind and that of the teacher. Exercises for order and rhythm, such as formations in rank, turnings, march-steps, etc., or what is generally termed "drill," have this effect and help to produce attention and discipline. This kind of drill is moreover constantly necessary when you have to deal with a greater number of pupils, in order to place and arrange them for other exercises. Movements of a more distinct gymnastic effect should, however, also be included amongst the introductions; first and foremost, simple leg exercises, that require very little conscious effort, but have the effect of drawing the blood from the may-be hard worked brain down to the nether extremities.

The mere occupying of a correct fundamental position requires at first no small effort on the part of the pupil; and I have often found that children here in England seem afraid of putting forth the necessary effort, I believe from a mistaken fear of looking affected. Still, this must be insisted upon, as it most truly deserves the name of fundamental position and serves as an initial position for the greatest number of exercises, other initial positions being lying, sitting, kneeling, and hanging, all of them naturally in endless varieties.

On the other hand it is most important not to keep the pupils in "attention" longer than necessary at a time, but to let them stand easy again, so as to accentuate the difference between being prepared for work and being at rest.

2. The Archflexions are marked by an arching backwards, or at least a very powerful extension of the upper part of the back. This position of the spine has the effect of lifting the ribs and spreading them apart in front, which means on the one hand a good stretching of the muscles from the ribs downwards in the abdominal wall and on the other an enlargement of the chest. Both of these circumstances tend to increase the possibility of deep inhalations.

An archflexion should invariably be followed by a bending forward downward in order to remove any possible feeling of discomfort from the sometimes very strong contraction of the back. This affords a typical illustration of how different movements should be employed at the right moment to counteract any undesirable effect that a previous exercise might have had.

Exercises of one class should in the same way prepare and pave the way for those of the following group; and this the archflexions do in a most marked manner in their relation to the "heaving movements," the group next in order on the list.

3. For the principal object of the Heaving Movements is to cultivate the capacity of contraction of the large inspiratory muscles connecting the head and arms with the chest, and thus to increase the power of inspiration after that the archflexions have just increased the possibility of inspiration.

The preceding mild passive stretching of these muscles is also a most rational preliminary to the more forcible strain which is thrown upon the upper region of the abdomen, when the chest is suddenly lifted and expanded by the pupil hanging by his arms from some apparatus.

Such hangings and climbings in a great variety of forms constitute typical heaving movements, but when there is no suitable apparatus at hand and in any case as an introduction to the true heaving movements, such exercises as head movements and arm stretchings should be used a substitutes.

The bending of the head backward and other movements of the head bring into powerful play the muscles of inspiration connecting the head and neck with the upper part of the chest and thus fulfil in a measure the avowed object of the heaving movements.

In arm-stretchings and bendings the same muscles are at work as in the true heaving movements, but in a modified way, the body being now fixed and the hands free, whereas in the true type it is the hands that are fixed and the body is lifted towards them.

The heaving movements are executed on several different kinds of apparatus, which fact shows the fallacy (often met with though) of classifying exercises according to the apparatus on which they happen to be performed instead of according to their effect upon the body.

Some of these movements involve a considerable exertion also of other parts of the body and thus combine the effect of other classes of exercises such as abdominal exercises and lateral trunk movements with that of heaving movements.

Such borderland exercises have to be classified according to their most pronounced effect, but when they are used in a day's lesson there is less need of any exercise of the related group. They should therefore be employed when time or other circumstances do not allow of every group being represented.

The heaving movements might be carried to a considerable degree of severity, that will in a very marked way develop the pupil's muscular strength, although it should be understood that this is not the first object of these or any other exercises.

4. After the improvement in the respiration caused by the archflexions and heaving movements, our next aim should be to secure a good general position and carriage of the body; and to that end the Balance Movements are introduced. These are in themselves simple exercises, but which are executed from a diminished base and therefore necessitate a constant, although almost imperceptible action of a vast number of muscles in order to keep the spine erect and the body in full balance. This muscular effort affects in the first place the leg muscles; and this is an additional reason for placing these exercises here. For after the heaving movements the heart beat is sure to be more or less exaggerated and the leg movements come then as the very best antidote.

5. With the Back, Neck, and Shoulder Movements we enter upon the first of three groups of exercises containing movements of a more specialized and localized effect. These three classes represent the climax of exertion expected from the pupils during a day's lesson and for which the previous general exercises ought now to have prepared them.

The object in this case in to overcome the tendency to "round shoulders" and the "chest bound" condition which are so prevalent amongst individuals lacking a gymnastic training. These exercises consist generally of movements of the arms executed in some position producing isolation of chest and head and thereby inducing the arms to move independently of the rest of the body.

It is a most usual fault even in young people, if they are not accustomed to it, that they are too stiff about the shoulders to swing up their arms fully extended above their heads, or back to each side, without at the same time bending the lower part of the back and nodding the head forwards. By practice, however, this tendency will be overcome; that means the muscles connecting the collar bones and shoulders with the ribs in front will be stretched and those from the shoulder blades to the spine will shorten so as to flatten out the shoulder blades on the back; and instead of the lower part of the spine bending, the upper region will actually straighten, the chest thereby expanding.

These types of shoulder movements are therefore called exercises of expansion, but as it is not all-sufficient to make the shoulder blades meet in the back and stay there, movements of localisation should also be employed to give that freedom of movement to the shoulder blades and the broadness of back which go hand-in-hand.

The lifting of the arms out to the sides and from there up above the head is an example of such exercises of localisation.

It is, however, only after the chest muscles have become fairly stretched, that such movements of localisation can be taken up with advantage, as they would otherwise tend to make the person more round-shouldered, if anything.

The effect of the arm movements in undoubtedly intensified by the use of Indian clubs, dumb bells, and such like loose hand apparatus, but these are not necessary, especially not for growing individuals, as in them the weight of the arms and the length of them that means their leverage, is constantly increasing.

Of far greater importance than the question of any weight or not is that these exercises like all others should be taken out to the very fullest extent. In the arm swinging upwards, for instance, it makes all the difference whether the movement is carried through or whether the hands stop an inch or two short. It is this last part of any movement which gives the whole exercise its value, just like the value and usefulness of a tool depend upon its edge.

Besides one can vary readily increase the effect of any exercise merely by changing the initial position for it. For instance, if we bend the body forwards and then execute any of the movements with the arms just referred to, the effect will be increased very considerably.

The additional work introduced in such a way is more likely to stand in due proportion to each individual's power and development than what any outside weights might do. We do therefore not use any loose hand apparatus in the Swedish school gymnastics, particularly as the practice with them is very apt to lead to exaggeration in certain directions and thus to faulty positions, as I have myself more than once had the opportunity of observing. This applies of course still more when it comes to heavy weight lifting, which is very easily carried to excess, especially in young persons that have not yet reached their full development. This practice in weight lifting will cause a sometimes very great increase in the bulk of the shoulder muscles, but without a proportionate straightening of the spine and expansion of the chest. The ardent devotee of many of the modern much-boomed systems of "physical culture" will therefore very often be found even more "round shouldered" and "chest bound" than the gymnastically untrained specimen which I referred to a little while ago.

6. To pass over to our next group, the Abdominal Exercises, these involve a powerful action of the muscles connecting the lower ribs with the pelvis and also of those passing from the spine down to the lower extremities. They temporarily compress the abdomen and cause more lively circulation of the blood through its contents, thereby improving the digestion, they develop the power of expiration and finally act as a specific corrective of any excessive bend backwards in the lower part of the spine.

The muscles passing from the ribs downwards are for their effective working naturally dependent upon a good and firm position of the chest, and the abdominal exercises ought therefore not to be employed until a reliable posture of the chest has been secured by previous movements. On the same principle these exercises are made easier by such initial positions being chosen as will fix the chest.

7. An exertion of the muscles of either or both sides of the body constitutes the distinctive feature of the Lateral Trunk Movements, as the name itself plainly indicated; and there are two main types of these movements, i.e., bendings to the side and twistings of the body.

The bendings exercise principally the muscles running vertically, while the twistings bring into activity those going in a transverse and oblique direction, which muscles have aptly been called "Nature's corset." We can easily see the great advantage of developing these natural outer supports of our internal organs, but there are in addition to be taken into consideration some less apparent although no less important effects of these exercises, and that is their influence on the circulation in the abdomen and the mobility which is induced between the different vertebrae of the spine.

With the lateral trunk movements we have finished the more specialized exercises in a day's lesson, and we enter once more upon those of a more general effect. This progression from the general to the special and into the general again should be the guiding principle, not only of one day's work at the gymnasium, but also of a person's physical exercise throughout life. The infant's kicking and crawling lead gradually into organised yet simple games and pursuits. These have during the school time to be given a more definite character, first and foremost that of a regular gymnastic training, in order to give the body that general harmonious development which best fits it for the tax of strength and endurance that is imposed upon it during the next few years, owing to the daily toil in the case of those that have to begin working for a living, or through the more trying sports and pastimes generally indulged in by their more fortunate brothers and sisters during this period of their life. Then sooner or later there will come the time when the efforts have to be relaxed and the exertions limited in extent and severity.

And if we look at the question more broadly still, can we not trace the same stages of progression in all human activity, mental as well as physical? After the years "free from sorrow, free from care" of childhood, for many only too few and short, alas, there comes the time for preparation and equipment for the mission which each one afterwards has, or at least ought to have, to fulfil with all energy and application until the time comes for the individual to enjoy his otium cum dignitate, or until he is reduced to "doing odd jobs," according to the position and circumstances in which Providence has placed him.

Still all this was a digression from my real subject, for which I must apologize. What now claimed our attention was the remaining groups of general exercises, which bring a day's gymnastic lesson to a close.

8. Next in order then, the eighth item in the programme, come Running, Jumping, and Vaulting, or with one inclusive name, Leaping. Such exercises have, besides their educational value, also a very obvious practical utility in every-day life. In order to get over meeting obstacles safely without risk of injury to life and limb, it is necessary to accomplish the landing according to certain recognised principles; and it is therefore this part of the leaping that requires the first and most careful training.

Except in certain "flying jumps" over hurdles, for instance, the landing should be effected on both feet simultaneously, and then with the toes turned out, the heels together and raised from the ground and with the knees slightly bent, so as to throw the strain of the impact on to the muscles of the calf and the extensors of the leg. For if it were thrown on to the bones directly with the knees kept straight, there would be a risk of injury not only to the various joints of the legs, but the jar might be sufficient to damage the spine and to displace internal organs.

Performed in the proper way the landing can quite well be done on the plain floor without any mattress or other protection. Such luxuries only tempt to carelessness and ought therefore to be abolished from the school gymnasium.

To analyse the different forms of leaping, Running might be described as a succession of jumps from one foot to the other, Jumping is leaping performed without help of the hands, except possibly to gain momentum, while in Vaulting the body weight is for a longer or shorter time supported on the hands.

With regard to the start in leaping we distinguish three different forms of it, i.e., "whole start," when both feet at the same time leave the ground from the standing position; "half start," when the spring is taken from one foot only (it should naturally be practised to use either foot at will for this purpose), and "double start," when the body is made to bounce up in the air by both feet being smartly struck on the ground, either from the standing position or after a few steps' run. This form of start is used almost exclusively in vaulting.

In the school gymnasium it is unnecessary to use any artificial aid for the start, such as the springboard, for we do not here "play to the gallery" and aim at any star performances.

The various forms of leaping have, by bringing into play such numbers of muscles, a highly exhilarating effect upon the minds of the pupils, they stimulate the activity of the liver and other internal organs and increase the elasticity of the body (which shows itself in a better arched instep and a more elastic gait).

To walk well is a great art generally more appreciated in a woman than in a man, and certainly more noticed, particularly in its absence, in girls than it is in boys. It seems to me though that it is a pity, if a boy be ever so clever in his studies or skillful at games, as is by no means excluded, that he should be allowed to go slouching about. Great stress should therefore be laid upon the practice of marching in the gymnasium and a variety of forms of marching should be employed, such as with long or short steps, on tiptoes, with marking of certain steps, with unbending of the knees, and stretching o f the insteps, etc.

All these variations being used not only to improve the pupil's manner of walking, but also with due regard to their different effect upon the functions of the heart and lungs. Slow walking for instance, and particularly on tiptoe, will have a very marked quietening influence on these functions.

This gives us a clue to when the marching should be put in during a day's lesson; any time and with advantage more than once, after previous more trying and violence exercises.

9. The marching takes in that way a somewhat similar position to the Breathing Exercises, the last but not least important of our various classes of gymnastic exercises, and to which we now will turn our attention. It has been well said that every gymnastic movement rightly executed is a breathing exercise, but this feature is a great deal more marked in some of them than in others, and it is therefore desirable that such exercises should be brought together in one distinct group.

Their object is to produce normal breathing, to facilitate the venous circulation and thus to relieve congestion and the acceleration of the heart beat, and to supply more oxygen to the blood and to exercise the air cells.

They consist of movements principally of the arms and trunk which alternately increase and decrease the capacity of the chest, and they may be taken out of several of the other groups of exercises, especially from the back, neck and shoulder movements.

Through the more complete expansion of the chest and drawing in of more air the air cells of the lungs will get a better opportunity for their normal action, which will help to increase their elasticity, lessen their tendency to disease and generally tend to produce strong and healthy lungs.

The breathing exercises have their place at the very end of the list, as they ought always to finish a day's exercises in order to bring the heart beat and respiration down to their normal frequency and to prepare for rest.

In addition to at the end of a day's lesson the breathing exercises ought, if time and circumstances allow, to be represented among the introductions, and they should besides be put in any time in a gymnastic lesson after any exercise that has made the pupils short of breath. Thus judiciously employed, these exercises will make the effect of a properly applied lesson one of rest instead of fatigue, as they increase the supply of oxygen and help more quickly to remove from the system the carbon dioxide, the presence of which is one of the chief causes of fatigue.

As the breathing exercises ought to be performed strictly in time with the respiration, as pointed out a little while ago, it would obviously be a great mistake to adapt these exercises to any artificial rhythm like that of music. But this brings me away from the breathing exercises and other special movements and on to the important general question of how a gymnastic lesson ought to be led.

Music as a means of leading the exercises has other great drawbacks besides that of imparting an incorrect rhythm to a great number of movements. It is very apt to take the pupil's attention away from the movement itself so that this becomes more or less a reflex act much to its detriment. For in order to get the full benefit from any movement, it is necessary that it should be executed with full volition, the change of activity from mental to motor centra in the brain being a most valuable part of its effect. This change will tend to make the performance of the exercises a much greater recreation than if they are done as mere mechanical acts, leaving the thoughts of the pupils free all the time to run on uninterrupted in the same grooves as before.

It may look very well to see a long and intricate set of exercises run smoothly according to the tune played, but appearances should never be our first consideration in these matters. moreover, if we scrutinise such a performance, we will generally find the apparent smoothness to a great extent resulting from the fact that the performers do not stop in any position long enough to show whether it is correctly occupied or not, and we cannot but realise that this is a very undesirable state of things, if we consider how the intended effect of a movement depends upon that it is executed with precision and to its full extent.

The same objection applies to the learning by heart of long series of exercises. When this plan is adopted, the effort of constantly trying to remember what has to be done next will still further take away much of the good effect of the exercises.

Nor is imitation pure and simple to be recommended, as the pupils then get their attention directed too much on the teacher instead of on themselves, besides which the teacher is in this case prevented from making those small manual corrections, a touch here and a pull there, which are such a useful help to the verbal instructions.

The best way of leading a gymnastic lesson therefore remains that by word of command. This enables the teacher to make the class top at or repeat any particular part of an exercise and gives him the opportunity of inspecting and correcting each different position. He is further able in this way to regulate by intonation as well as by choice of words the speed and duration of various movements, and above all it lends to the teacher that dominating power over the pupils' minds which is no encroachment upon their rights as free citizens, but only trains them to act promptly and unhesitatingly and to get their bodies under the influence and control of their own will. Only when taught in this way the school gymnastics attain their highest educational value as well as physical effect.

It will probably have struck my audience during these, I am afraid, by far too long remarks of mine of the Swedish School Gymnastics, that a good many of the features of this system which I have pointed out and laid stress upon are by no means exclusively peculiar to this, but may be found also in other systems of gymnastics. Of this I am naturally aware, and it could not very well be otherwise with all the exercises and physical culture of which we hear so much nowadays.

As some of you know, there is even at the present time a Royal Commission sitting for the elaboration of a national system of physical education, the S.C. Model Course of Physical training, this I think one might say as a result of the revelations as to physical degeneracy amongst the recruits available during the late South African War. Let us hope that the interest at that time aroused in this important question may not wane again. Pray, may this observation be understood not as a sarcastic scepticism by a foreigner, but as a true wish for the welfare of this great country by one whose lot and privilege it has become to live and work here.

Still I naturally stand up for Ling's gymnastics as the first and original carefully elaborated system, which has stood the test of time and of international criticism, is the basis of all rational gymnastics, and as far as we can see ahead, will remain the foundation upon which future systems are going to be built. And I trust I have been able to make clear to my patient audience that the teaching of gymnastics ought to be a much more exact science and less a rule of thumb work than you may have hitherto realised. On the other hand I hope I have not given you the erroneous impression that It is all theory; far from it, it is only in the preparatory selection of exercises for a day's lesson that the theories should come to the fore. As far as the pupils are concerned during the lesson there should be all practical activity.

Typed by Chrysanthanum, Sep. 2024